Effects of Smoke Exposure on Firefighter Health
A
Screening-Level Assessment of the Health Risks of Chronic Smoke Exposure
for Wildland Firefighters
Abstract -- A screening health risk assessment was performed to assess
the upper-bound risks of cancer and noncancer adverse health effects among
wildland firefighters performing wildfire suppression and prescribed burn
management. Of the hundreds of chemicals in wildland fire smoke, we identified
15 substances of potential concern from the standpoints of concentration
and toxicology; these included aldehydes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, benzene, and respirable particulate matter. Data defining
daily exposures to smoke at prescribed burns and wildfires, potential
days of exposure in a year, and career lengths were used to estimate average
and reasonable maxim um career inhalation exposures to these substances.
Of the 15 substances in smoke that were evaluated, only benzene and formaldehyde
posed a cancer risk greater than 1 per million, while only acrolein and
respirable particulate matter exposures resulted in hazard indices greater
than 1.0. The estimated upper-bound cancer risks ranged from 1.4 to 220
excess cancers per million, and noncancer hazard indices ranged from 9
to 360, depending on the exposure group. These values only indicate the
likelihood of adverse health effects, not whether they will or will not
occur. The risk assessment process narrows the field of substances that
deserve further assessment, and the hazards identified by risk assessment
generally agree with those identified as a concern in occupational exposure
assessments.
Booze, Thomas F.; Reinhardt, Timothy E; Quiring, Sharon J.; Ottmar,
Roger D. 2004. A screening-level assessment of the health risks of chronic
smoke exposure for wildland firefighters. Journal of Occupational and
Environmental Hygiene. 1:296-306
Full text
[.pdf 109 kb]
Baseline Measurements of Smoke Exposure Among Wildland Firefighters
Abstract -- Extensive measurements of smoke exposure among wild-land
firefighters are summarized, showing that firefighters can be exposed
to significant levels of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants, including
formaldehyde, acrolein, and respirable particulate matter. Benzene was
also measured and found to be well below permissible exposure limits,
with the highest concentrations occurring among firefighters working with
engines and torches burning petroleum-based fuel. Exposures to all pollutants
were higher among firefighters at prescribed burns than at wildfires,
while shift-average smoke exposures were lowest among firefighters who
performed initial attack of wildfires in the early stages of the fires.
Smoke exposure reaches its highest levels among firefighters maintaining
fire within designated firelines and performing direct attack of spot
fires that cross firelines. These events and the associated smoke exposures
were positively correlated with increasing ambient wind speeds, which
hamper fire management and carry the convective plume of the fire into
firefighters' breathing zone. The pollutants measured in smoke were reasonably
well-correlated with each other, enabling estimation of exposure to multiple
pollutants in smoke from measurements of a single pollutant such as carbon
monoxide.
Reinhardt Timothy E.; Ottmar, Roger D. 2004. Baseline measurements
of smoke exposure among wildland firefighters. Journal of Occupational
and Environmental Hygiene. 1: 593-606.
Full
text [.pdf 711 kb]
Ottmar, Roger D; Reinhardt, Timothy R. 2001. Smoke exposure among
fireline personnel. Chapter 3.4, 51-57. In: Hardy, Colin C.;
Ottmar, Roger D.; Peterson, Janice L; Core, John E.; Seamon, Paula, eds.
and comps. Smoke management guide for prescribed and wildland fire: 2001
edition. PMS 420-2. NFES 1279. Boise, ID: National Wildfire Coordination
Group. 226 p.
Full Text [.pdf].
[Instructions for ordering]
Smoke
Exposure at Western Wildfires
Abstract -- Smoke exposure measurements among firefighters at wildfires
in the Western United States between 1992 and 1995 showed that altogether
most exposures were not significant, between 3 and 5 percent of the shift-average
exposures exceeded occupational exposure limits for carbon monoxide and
respiratory irritants. Exposure to benzene and total suspended particulate
was not significant, although the data for the latter were limited in
scope. The highest short-term exposures to smoke occurred during initial
attack of small wildfires, but the shift-average exposures were less during
initial attack than those at extended (project) fire assignments because
of unexposed time during the shift. Among workers involved in direct attack
of actively burning areas and maintaining fireline boundaries, peak exposure
situations could be several times greater than recommended occupational
exposure limits for short-term exposures. The study found that exposure
to acrolein, benzene, formaldehyde, and respirable particulate matter
could be predicted from measurements of carbon monoxide. Electrochemical
dosimeters for carbon monoxide were the best tool for routinely assessing
smoke exposure, so long as quality assurance provisions were included
in the monitoring program. Suggested procedures for reducing overexposure
to smoke include (1) hazard awareness training, (2) routinely monitoring
smoke exposure, (3) evaluating health risks and applicable exposure criteria,
(4) improving health surveillance and injury recordkeeping, (5) limiting
use of respiratory protection when other mitigation is not feasible, and
(6) involving workers, managers, and regulators to develop a smoke exposure
management strategy.
Reinhardt, Timothy E.; Ottmar, Roger D. 2000. Smoke exposure
at western wildfires. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-525. Portland, OR: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research
Station. 72 p.
Abstract and full
text [.html]
Smoke
Exposure Among Firefighters at Prescribed Burns in the Pacific Northwest
Abstract -- Smoke exposure measurements among firefighters during prescribed
burns in the Pacific Northwest between 1991 and 1994 showed that a small
but significant percentage of workers experienced exposure to carbon monoxide
and respiratory irritants that exceeded occupational exposure limits.
This most often was caused by unfavorable winds or fire behavior and occurred
mostly among workers involved in maintaining the fire within the prescribed
boundaries. Smoke exposure in such peak exposure situations was up to
three times above recommended limits. Exposure to acrolein benzene, formaldehyde,
and respirable particulate matter could be predicted from measurements
of carbon monoxide. Electronic dosimeters were the best tool to assess
smoke exposure routinely, so long as quality assurance concepts were included
in the monitoring program.
Reinhardt, Timothy E.; Ottmar, Roger D.; Hanneman, Andrew J.S. 2000.
Smoke exposure among firefighters at prescribed burns in the Pacific Northwest.
Res. Pap. PNW-RP-526. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 45 p.
Abstract and full
text [.html
Guide to Monitoring Smoke Exposure of Wildland Firefighters
Abstract -- Fire managers and safety officers concerned with smoke exposure
among fire crews can use electronic carbon monoxide (CO) monitors to track
and prevent overexposure to smoke. Commonly referred to as dosimeters,
these lightweight instruments measure the concentration of CO in the air
the firefighter’s breathe. This guide outlines the protocol developed
for sampling smoke exposure among firefighters with CO dosimeters. It
provides a basic template for managers and safety officers interested
in establishing their own smoke-exposure monitoring program.
Reinhardt, Tim E.; Ottmar, Roger D.; Hallett, Michael J. 1999. Guide
to monitoring smoke exposure of wildland firefighters. Gen. Tech. Rep.
PNW-GTR-448. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Research Station. 15 p.
Abstract and full
text [.html]
Smoke
Exposure Among Wildland Firefighters: A Review and Discussion of Current
Literature
Abstract -- This paper reviews and summarizes literature about smoke
exposure and the resulting adverse health effects among wildland firefighters
Many studies have been done on this problem between 1973 and 1995 Overall
the data indicate that smoke exposure at wildfires and prescribed fires
is usually no more than an inconvenience, but on occasion it approaches
or exceeds legal and recommended occupational exposure limits Management
action is necessary to bring all smoke exposures into compliance with
occupational safety regulations.
Reinhardt, T.E.; Ottmar, R.D. 1997. Smoke exposure among wildland
firefighters: a review and discussion of current literature. Gen. Tech.
Rep. PNW-GTR-373. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station.68 p.
Abstract and full
text [.html]
Fire and Environmental Research Applications Group. 1995. Smoke
exposure at prescribed burns. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station [not paged].
Brochure.
Reinhardt, T.; Hanneman, A.; Ottmar, R. 1994. Smoke exposure
at prescribed burns. Final report; Radian Corporation. Available
from: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest
Research Station, 4043 Roosevelt Way, Seattle, WA.
Monitoring Firefighter Exposure to Air Toxins at Prescribed
Burns of Forest and Range Biomass
Abstract -- A variety of potent air toxins are in the smoke produced
by burning forest and range biomass. Preliminary data on flrefighter exposures
to carbon monoxide and formaldehyde at four prescribed burns of Western
United States natural fuels are presented. Formaldehyde may be correlated
to carbon monoxide emissions. The firefighters' exposures to these compounds
relative to workplace standards are discussed.
Reinhardt, Timothy E. 1991. Monitoring firefighter exposure to air
toxins at prescribed burns of forest and range biomass. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-441.
Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station. 8 p.
Abstract and full
text [.html]
Other Sources of Information
Team Lead: Roger
Ottmar
Collaborators:
This research is funded by
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