Wolf, K. L. 2008. Community Context and Strip Mall Retail: Public Response to the Roadside Landscape, Paper 08-0842. Proceedings of the 87th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board (January 13-17, 2008). Washington D.C.: Transportation Research Board of the National Academies of Science.

Abstract: Strip malls (aka mini-malls) are a common land use, historically promoted by U.S. zoning practices that concentrate retail and commercial development in a narrow band along urban arterials and major streets. Mini-malls are an entry-level retail niche offering opportunity for independent, start-up businesses that serve a limited market range. More recently, communities have begun to call into the question land uses that enable efficient ingress and egress of vehicles in retail and commercial districts, but gave little attention to multi-modal motility. Some communities are redeveloping small mall zones based on “complete street” principles, expanding landscape plantings, and redeveloping the character of a business district. The study assessed public response to one element of small mall (re)development – landscape and vegetation
options. A series of prior studies indicate that consumer behavior is positively associated with city trees (the urban forest) on multiple cognitive and behavioral dimensions. Using mail surveys that depicted varied roadside treatments, residents of three major cities in the Pacific Northwest
were asked to indicate their preferences and perceptions regarding proposed changes. Survey stimulus materials addressed concepts of visual quality, retail perceptions, patronage behavior, wayfinding, and willingness-to-pay for goods and services. Combined econometrics and
psychometrics indicated that respondents prefer landscaped roadsides, and report positive retail behavior, such as willingness to pay 8.8% more for goods and services in well landscaped malls. Redevelopment and roadside management guidelines are proposed based on the research results, with implications for the economics of local communities.

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Taylor, A.B., F.E. Kuo and W.C. Sutton. 2001. "Coping With ADD: The Surprising Connection to Green Play Settings". Environment and Behavior, Vol. 33, No. 1. pp. 5-77

Abstract: Attention Restoration Theory suggests that contact with nature supports attentional functioning, and a number of studies have found contact with everyday nature to be related to attention in adults. Is contact with everyday nature also related to the attentional functioning of children? This question was addressed through a study focusing on children with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). This study examined the relationship between children’s nature exposure through leisure activities and their attentional functioning using both within- and between-subjects comparisons. Parents were surveyed regarding their child’s attentional functioning after activities in several settings. Results indicate that children function better than usual after activities in green settings and that the “greener” a child’s play area, the less severe his or her attention deficit symptoms. Thus, contact with nature may support attentional functioning in a population of children who desperately need attentional support.

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Kuo, F.E. 2001. "Coping With Poverty: Impacts of Environment and Attention in the Inner City". Environment and Behavior, Vol. 33, No. 1. pp. 5-34.

Abstract: Considerable evidence suggests that exposure to “green” environments can enhance human effectiveness and make life’s demands seem manageable. Does this phenomenon extend to poor inner cities, where green space is minimal and life’s demands may be overwhelming? In 145 urban public housing residents randomly assigned to buildings with and without nearby nature, attentional functioning and effectiveness in managing major life issues were compared. Residents living in buildings without nearby trees and grass reported more procrastination in facing their major issues and assessed their issues as more severe, less soluble, and more longstanding than did their counterparts living in greener surroundings. Mediation tests and extensive tests for possible confounds supported the attention restoration hypothesis— that green space enhances residents’ effectiveness by reducing mental fatigue. These findings suggest that urban public housing environments could be configured to enhance residents’ psychological resources for coping with poverty.

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Kuo, F.E., W.C. Sullivan, R.L. Coley and L. Brunson. 1998. "Fertile Ground for Community: Inner-City Neighborhood Common Spaces". American Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 26, No. 6. pp. 823-851.

Abstract: Research suggests that the formation of neighborhood social ties (NSTs) may substantially depend on the informal social contact which occurs in neighborhood common spaces, and that in inner-city neighborhoods where common spaces are often barren no-man's lands, the presence of trees and grass supports common space use and informal social contact among neighbors. We found that for 145 urban public housing residents randomly assigned to 18 architecturally identical buildings, levels of vegetation in common spaces predict both use of common spaces and NSTs; further, use of common spaces mediated the relationship between vegetation and NSTS. In addition, vegetation and NSTs were significantly related to residents' senses of safety and adjustment. These findings suggest that the use and characteristics of common spaces may play a vital role in the natural growth of community, and that improving common spaces may be an especially productive focus for community organizing efforts in inner-city neighborhoods.

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Trees in Small City Business Districts: Comparing Responses of Residents & Potential Visitors

This study was a replicate of the large city study and tested consumer response to trees in communities that have 10-20,000 population. Measures of preference, perception and economic willingness-to-pay were used again. Research methods included interviews and mail-out surveys. Survey respondents prefer having large trees in retail streetscapes. Trees are also associated with reported increases in patronage behavior (such as travel distance and visit frequency), and willingness to pay more for products (up to 9%). Few differences in response were detected between small city residents and potential visitors who reside in nearby large cities.

• Trees in Small City Business Districts: Comparing Resident and Visitor Response - Fact Sheet 16 (pdf 160 K)
• Trees on Main Street: Influences on Retail and Shopping Behavior - Fact Sheet 17 (pdf 104 K)
• Wolf, K.L. 2005. "Trees In the Small City Retail Business District: Comparing Resident and Visitor Perceptions". Journal of Forestry, Vol. 103, No. 8. pp. 390-395.
• Wolf, K.L. 2002. "Human Dimensions of the Urban Forest in Small City Business Settings". In SAF (ed.), Forestry at the Great Divide: Proceedings of the 2001 National Conference. Washington D.C.: Society of American Foresters.

Grove, J.M., A.R. Troy, J.P.M. O'Neil-Dunne, W.R. Burch Jr., M.L. Cadenasso and S.T.A. Pickett. 2006. "Characterization of Households and its Implications for the Vegetation of Urban Ecosystems". Ecosystems, Vol. 9, No. 4. pp. 578-597.

Abstract: Our understanding of the dynamics of urban ecosystems can be enhanced by examining the multidimensional social characteristics of households. To this end, we investigated the relative significance of three social theories of household structure—population, lifestyle behavior, and social stratification—to the distribution of vegetation cover in Baltimore, Maryland, USA. Our ability to assess the relative significance of these theories depended on fine-scale social and biophysical data. We distinguished among vegetation in three areas hypothesized to be differentially linked to these social theories: riparian areas, private lands, and public rights-of-way (PROWs). Using a multimodel inferential approach, we found that variation of vegetation cover in riparian areas was not explained by any of the three theories and that lifestyle behavior was the best predictor of vegetation cover on private lands. Surprisingly, lifestyle behavior was also the best predictor of vegetation cover in PROWs. The inclusion of a quadratic term for housing age significantly improved the models. Based on these research results, we question the exclusive use of income and education as the standard variables to explain variations in vegetation cover in urban ecological systems. We further suggest that the management of urban vegetation can be improved by developing environmental marketing strategies that address the underlying household motivations for and participation in local land management.

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Kuo, F.E. and W.C. Sullivan. 2001. "Environment and Crime in the Inner city: Does Vegetation Reduce Crime?". Environment and Behavior, Vol. 33, No. 3. pp. 343-367.

Abstract: Although vegetation has been positively linked to fear of crime and crime in a number of settings, recent findings in urban residential areas have hinted at a possible negative relationship: Residents living in "greener" surroundings report lower levels of fear, fewer incivilities, and less aggressive and violent behavior. This study used police crime reports to examine the relationship between vegetation and crime in an inner-city neighborhood. Crime rates for 98 apartment buildings with varying levels of nearby vegetation were compared. Results indicate that although residents were randomly assigned to different levels of nearby vegetation, the greener a building’s surroundings were, the fewer crimes reported. Furthermore, this pattern held for both property crimes and violent crimes. The relationship of vegetation to crime held after the number of apartments per building, building height, vacancy rate, and number of occupied units per building were accounted for.

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