Annotated Bibliography - Lichens as Indicators of Air Quality

Updated 16-Dec-96

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Notes:

• Bracketed phrases - [ ] - are summaries prepared by Egan or Esslinger (reproduced here with their permission) in the continuing series "Lichens as indicators of air pollution" in The Lichenologist..
• Text in quotation marks - "" - are taken directly from the abstract, or another part of the article.
• Summaries which have no quotation marks and which are heavily abbreviated have been prepared by Linda Geiser with the assistance other FS lichenologists.

Adamson, E, and Seppelt, RD. 1990. A comparison of airborne alkaline pollution damage in selected lichens and mosses at Casey Station, Wilkes Land, Antarctica. Antarctic Ecosystems Ecological Change and Conservation. K.R. Kerry and G. Hempel (eds.). 145: Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. 347 pp.

6 fig. [Study of the effects of airborne alkaline cement dust from a concrete batching plant on selected lichens and mosses (Usnea sphacelata, Umbilicaria decussata, Ceratodon purpureus). "Lichens growing downwind of the batching site were more susceptible to damage from airborne alkaline pollution than the mosses and were moderately to severely bleached. This chapter describes the relation between mean total chlorophyll concentration, chlorophyll a/b ratio, distance from the batching site and soil pH."]

Addison, P.A. and K.J. Puckett. 1980. Deposition of atmospheric pollutants as measured by lichen element content in the Athabasca oil sands area. Can. J. Bot. 58:2323-2334.

Al, K, S, Ti, V contents of lichens -- NW sp: Hypogymnia physodes-- were determined for up to 69 sites in the Athabasca oil sands area. Elemental conc. were related to industrial sources and a localized windblown dust component and closely followed the distribution patterns measured by physical and chemical methods. Changes in the thallus appeared to be related to elemental conc. This ref. does not give elemental values for each species, instead it compares Pearson correlation coefficients for H. physodes and Evernia mesomorpha and enrichment factors for the spp.

Baddeley, M.S., B.W. Ferry and E.J. Finnegan. 1973. Sulphur dioxide and respiration in lichens. pp. 229-313 In: Ferry, B.W., M.S. Baddeley and D.L.Hawsworth (eds.), Air Pollution and Lichens. Althone Press, London.

Bargali, R., M. Castello, D. Gaspero, G. Lazzarin and M. Tretiach. 1992. Lichens as indicators and biomonitors of environmental pollution: different scale examples from Italy. In: Karnfelt, I. (ed.) The Second International Lichenological Symposium, IAL2, Hemmeslov, Bastad, Sweden. 30 Aug.-4 Sept. 1992. Abstracts. Dept. of Systematic Botany, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden.

Barkman, J.J. 1969. The influence of air pollution on bryophytes and lichens. In: Air pollution. Proc. of the First European Congress on the Influence of Air Pollution on Plants and Animals. Wageningen. 1968. pp. 197-209.

Beckett, P.J., L.J.R. Boileau, D. Padovan, and D.H.S. Richardson. 1982. Lichens and mosses as monitors of industrial activity associated with uranium mining in northern Ontario, Canada--Part 2: Distance- dependent uranium and lead accumulation patterns. Environmental Pollution, Series B. 4: 91-107.

2 tables. 8 figures. ["The variation in concentration (C(d)) of uranium and lead in lichens and mosses with distance (d) from emission sources associated with the mining and milling of uranium conformed to the equation: C(d) = md -n[exponent] +b." Estimates of effective radius of a macro-pollution zone can now be determined.] Study of uranium mining and milling operations at Elliot Lake, Ontario, using Cladonia rangifera and Cladonia mitis, plus the mosses Pleurozium schreberi and Sphagnum spp. Samples were taken along two transects and micro transects near active tailing ponds, mills, exhaust vents.

Beekley, P.K.and G.R. Hoffman. 1981. Effects of sulphur dioxide fumigation on photosynthesis, respiration, and chlorophyll content of selected lichens. The Bryologist 84: 379-390.

[Study conducted on Parmelia bolliana, Physcia stellaris, Xanthoria fallax, and Physconia grisea from South Dakota. Fumigation at 2.5 ppm caused decreased photosynthesis; the more xerophytic species were more sensitive. "Chlorophyll content in these species was not measurably altered by fumigation." Respiration in Physcia stellaris and Parmelia bolliana also decreased significantly following fumigation at 2.5 ppm.]

Belandria, G., J. Asta, and J.P. Garrec. 1986. Diminuations of fluorine contents in lichens due to a regression of pollution in an alpine valley (Maurienne, Savoie, France) from 1975 to 1985. Rev. Ecol. Alp., Grenoble, 1:45-58.

"F analyses were made for different spp. of lichens (NW spp: Cladonia pyxidata , Peltigera canina, Umbilicaria cylindrica, Hypogymnia physodes, Bryoria fuscescens) collected over the course of 11 years. A general decrease in F contents in lichens was observed for instance from 106-12 ppm in P. canina and from 124-44 ppm in U. cylindrica." This decrease of F reveals the variations of the level of F poll. in the atmosphere during the study.

Belandria, G., J. Asta, and F. Nurit. 1989. Effects of sulphur dioxide and fluoride on ascospore germination of several lichens. Lichenologist 21: 79-86.

[Studies using ascospores from Lecanora conizaeoides, Xanthoria parietina, Physconia distorta and Peltigera canina. "P. canina spores had the highest sensitivity to SO2 (no germination at 500 µM H2SO3). Lecanora conizaeoides spores were almost insensitive to each of the two studied pollutants (30% spore germination at 1000 µM H2SO3, or NaF). However, simultaneous exposure to 1000 µM H2SO3 and 100 µM NaF resulted in no germination, indicating a synergistic effect of these products."]

Belnap, J., et al. 1993. Indentification of Sensitive Species. In: Huckaby, LS, et al. 1993. Lichens as biomonitors of air quality. Proc. of a workshop sponsored by the NPS and USDA-FS. USDA/USFS Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Exp. Sta. GTR RM-224.

Procedures for determining the responses and sensitivities of lichen spp. are discussed. Primary and secondary pollutants are defined. Fumigation and gradient types of studies are discussed, advantages and disadvantages of each method are also considered.

Blum, O.B., and Y.G. Tjutjunnik. 1992. Quantitative biogeochemical monitoring of air pollution in urban areas by heavy metals: a new approach and new methods. The Second International Lichenological Symposium, IAL2, Hemmeslov, Bastad, Sweden.

"In order to create a quantitative method of heavy metal atm. poll., we now propose a new approach: the estimation of a regression between an absolute metal content of city boundary layer atm. air and the corresponding content in lichen or tree bark. The basis for developing this method is the known correlation between metal conc. in air and lichens. Results obtained from our investigations in 28 cities in the SW part of the European region (Ukraine, Russia, Belorussia) show that there is a significant correlation between heavy metal content (Fe, Mn, Cu, and Pb) of city air(3-5 yrs of avgd. data) and its content in epiphytic lichens (Xanthoria parietina, Parmelia sulcata, Physcia stellaris, Hypogymnia physodes); however, no correlations were found for Zn and Ni. Similar investigations with Populus nigra resulted in highly significant correlations between heavy metals in P. nigra bark and city air. The bark was found to be a better bioindicator than the lichens and requires less time and complications for sampling and preparation for elemental analysis."

Böhm, M., B. McCune, and T. Vandetta. 1995. Ozone regimes in or near forests of the western United States: Part 2 Factors influencing regional patterns. J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 45: 477-489.

Boonpragob, K, T.H. Nash III, and C.A. Fox. 1989. Seasonal deposition patterns of acidic ions and ammonium to the lichen Ramalina menziesii Tayl. in Southern California. Environmental & Experimental Botany 29: 187-197.

[Study conducted at two-week intervals over 50 weeks at both polluted and non-polluted sites. "During interstorm periods accumulation of leachable ions occurred with the highest levels found at the end of extended summer drought periods. Leachable NO3- was always the ion in highest concentration and the ions NH⁴⁺, H⁺ and Cl^- were found in intermediate concentrations. During summers all ions except Cl^- were consistently higher at the polluted site than at the control site."] Study demonstrates: 1. Lichens are able to accumulate ionic deposition of NO3^-, NH⁴⁺, H⁺, SO4^2-, PO4^3-, F^-, and Cl^-. 2. The ions that accumulated by the thalli of Ramalina menziesii were higher in summer than winter. The magnitude of accumulation varies markedly with seasonal precipitation patterns and air quality of locations.

Boonpragob, K., and T.H. Nash III. 1990. Seasonal variation of elemental status in the lichen Ramalina menziesii Tayl. from two sites in southern California: evidence for dry deposition accumulation. Environmental & Experimental Botany 30: 415-428.

[Transplant study in California in relation to air pollution levels.] "Total concentration of most elements did not exhibit distinct seasonal patterns but the higher concentrations exceeded background levels by factors of 1.3-3.7, depending on the element. In contrast, the elements in the leachates at the control and the polluted site exhibited distinct seasonal patterns with higher concentrations generally present in summer than in winter. These elemental patterns reflected not only atmospheric deposition patterns, but also intracellular release of elements as injury occurred and to a lesser extent accumulation of marine aerosols and soil particulates."

Boonpragob, K., and T.H. Nash III. 1991. Physiological responses of the lichen Ramalina menziesii Tayl. to the Los Angeles urban environment. Environmental & Experimental Botany 31: 229-238.

[Transplant experiments show a decline in chlorophyll content and net photosynthesis associated with the accumulation of 23 ions, particularly nitrate and fluoride.] In Southern CA the lichen Ramalina menziesii was transplanted from a control area to a polluted area for three periods during the year. Net photosynthetic rates, recorded under standard conditions in the laboratory, chlorophyll contents and % phaeophytins were measured at 2-week intervals for samples from both sites. During summer periods at the polluted site chlorophyll and net photosynthesis declined substantially and % phaeophytins increased, but during the winter period no changes in these parameters was observe during the transplant periods. During the winter there was no difference in net photosynthesis for samples collected from the two sites. During the summers the decline in the lichen at the polluted site was associated with the accum. of 23 ions. Although no demonstrably toxic, nitrate concentrations alone explained over 75% of the variations of each physiological parameter. Fl was the second most important variable and was probably accumulated to toxic levels.

Boritz, S., and H. Ranft. 1972. Zur SO2 und HF Empfindlichkeit von flechten und moosen. Biologisches Zentralblatt 91(5): 613-623.-

Brace, S. 1996. The Spatial Distribution of Ozone in the Mt. Rainier National Park Region. Master of Science Thesis. University of Washington, Seattle, WA.

Brodo, I.M. 1961. Transplant experiments with corticolous lichens using a new technique. Ecology 42: 838-841.

Brown, D.H., and R.P. Beckett. 1983. Differential sensitivity of lichens to heavy metals. Ann. of Bot. 52: 51-57.

"Zn, Cd, and Cu inhibited photosynthesis in lichens containing cyanobacterial phycobionts at substantially lower concentrations than those causing decreased photosynthesis in lichens containing chlorophycean phycobionts. This distinction was not related to differences in total thallus conc. of Zn, Mg, Ca, or K or to the quantitiy of Zn taken up to intracellular sites. When incubated with concentrated Zn solutions the chlorophycean lichen Cladonia rangiformis accumulated more Zn on extracellular exchangeable sites than did the cyanobacterial lichen Peltigera horizontalis."

Brown, D.H., and N. Smirnoff. 1978. Observations on the effect of ozone on Cladonia rangiformis. Lichenologist 10: 91-94.

Cladina rangiferina was taken from the field (Somerset, Eng.) and samples were hydrated for 24 hrs before O3 exposure. The ozonated air was humidified. O 2 between 2 ppm for 2-5 hr, did not alter photosynthetic CO-2 fixation and release of radioactivity in C. rangiferina. One poss. reason the authors gave for C. rangiferina 's tolerance to ozone was that while ozone goes thru the stomata of vasc. plants, the fungal layer of the lichen may block ozone to the algal layer. Also after fumigation the authors noted a "distinctly decaying fungal smell, possibly indicative of hyphal damage." The authors conclude that C. rangiferina "in the field is unlikely to be directly damaged by exposure to the highest conc. of ozone reported to occur."

Carlberg, G.E., E.B. Ofstad, H. Drangsholt, and E. Steinnes. 1983. Atmospheric deposition of organic micropollutants in Norway studied by means of moss and lichen analysis. Chemosphere 12(3): 341-356.

Case, J.W. 1980. The influence of three sour gas processing plants on the ecological distribution of epiphytic lichens in the vicinity of Fox Creek and Whitecourt, Alberta Canada. Water, Air and Soil Poll. 14: 45-68.

"The ecological distribution of epiphytic lichens have been reduced by SO2 emissions form three sour gas processing plants located near Fox Creek and Whitecourt, Alberta. Pollutants tend to concentrate in drainage channels leading to the Athabasca River. These channels parallel the prevailing wind. No sites were encountered which totally lacked lichens, but at sites within 1-2 km downwind of gas plants and associated S storage blocks, the epiphytic lichen flora was reduced in variety, cover and vitality. IAP was used and improvements for methodologies are suggested."

Coxson, D.S. 1988. Recovery of net photosynthesis and dark respiration on rehydration of the lichen, Cladina mitis, and the influence of prior exposure to sulphur dioxide while desiccated. New Phytologist 108: 483-487.

1 table. 1 figure. ["These results point to importance of considering the effects of dry deposition on physiological processes and suggest that in some cases limited SO2 exposure may result in short-term enhancement of photosynthetic uptake."]

Crock, J.G., L.P. Gough, D.R. Mangis, et al. 1992. Element concentration and trends for moss, lichen, and surface soils in and near Denali National Park and Preserve, AK. USGS Open-File Report 92-323. USGS-NPS, Air Quality Division.

Crock, J.G., R.C. Severnson, and L.P. Gough. 1992. Determining baselines and variability of elements in plants and soils near the Kenai Natl. Wildlife Refuge, AK. Water, Soil, and Air Poll. 63: 253-271.

Davidson, C.I., et al. 1985. Airborne trace elements in Great Smoky Mountains, Olympic and Glacier National Parks. Environ. Sci. Technol. 19(1): 27-35.

De Bruin, M., and E. Hackenitz. 1986. Trace element concentrations in epiphytic lichens and bark substrate." Environmental Pollution, Series B. 11:153-160.

"Elemental concentrations of 20 trace elements in inner bark, outer bark and epiphytic lichens were correlated. Inner bark concentrations were generally lower than the conc. in the outer bark and lichens. "For most of the elements studied, uptake from the substrate bark into the lichen is not likely to occur. But for Ca, Mn, Zn, Cd, and Ba, the possibility of such uptake has to be considered seriously; where high soil conc. or long-term air poll may be indirectly reflected in the lichens, obscuring the direct uptake from the atmosphere."

Denison, R., B. Caldwell, B. Bormann, et al. 1977. The effects of acid rain on nitrogen fixation in western Washington coniferous forests. Water, Air and Soil Pollution. 8: 21-34.

"Even the low conc. of SO2 presently found in the Pacific NW are thought to have an adverse effect on N2 fixation by limiting the distribution of the epiphytic N2-fixing lichen, Lobaria pulmonaria, which is found mainly in deciduous forests. A close relative Lobaria oregana, was found to be the major N2 fixer in old-growth coniferous forests. L. oregana fixes less N2 following exposure to H2SO4 of pH 4 or less." Harvesting practices are also a threat -- " L. oregana is a late successional spp. and doesn't develop in forests where short cutting cycles are practiced."

Denison, W.C., and S.M. Carpenter. 1973. A Guide to Air Quality Monitoring with Lichens. Lichen Technology, Inc., 39 pages.

Lots of illustrations. The scale used in this guide is based on data from 170 sites in the Willamette valley. The two most resistant (Class 1) lichens, Xanthoria polycarpa and Parmelia sulcata were found almost everywhere except for downtown Portland and a very few isolated industrial sites. In areas with slightly cleaner air, these two species were accompanied by three slightly more sensitive (Class 2) lichens: Ramalina farinacea, Melanelia subaurifera, Usnea subfloridana. In still cleaner areas, these spp. as well as the still more sensitive class 3 lichens (Leproloma membranaceum, Evernia prunastri) were present. Finally, in the cleanest areas, Class 4 lichens (Lobaria pulmonaria, Physcia aipolia) were found in addition to the other spp. " This is a simplified approach for laypersons including ID, and surveying techniques.

Deruelle, S. 1977. Influence de la pollution atmospherique sur la vegetation lichenique des arbres isoles dans la Region De Mantes (Yvelines). Rev. Bryol. Lichenol. 43(2): 137-158.

Deruelle, S. 1978. Les lichens et la pollution atmospherique. Bull. Ecol. 9(2): 87-128.

DeSloover, J., and F. LeBlanc. 1968. Mapping of atmospheric pollution on the basis of lichen sensitivity. Proc. Symp. Recent Adv. Trop. Ecol. 1968: 42-56.

DeWit, T. 1976. Epiphytic lichens and air pollution in the Netherlands. Bilio. Lichenol. 5:1-227. J. Cramer, Vaduz.

Diamantopoulos, J; S. Pirintsos, J.R. Laundon, and D. Vokou. 1992. The epiphytic lichens around Thessaloniki (Greece) as indicators of sulphur dioxide pollution. Lichenologist 24: 63-71.

The epiphytic lichens of 21 pine stands, planted around Thessaloniki, was investigated in an attempt to relate its characteristics to SO2 pollution. Data were further processed with detrended correspondence analysis and two-way indicator spp. analysis. Four epiphytic lichen zones could be detected in the study area, characterized by particular groups of lichen spp. with different sensitivity to SO2 pollution. NW spp: Hypogymnia physodes, Evernia prunastri, Physcia aipolia, Physconia americana, Melanelia exasperatula, Melanelia glabratula, Physcia adscendens, Parmelia sulcata, Xanthoria parietina.

Dobbins, R.A. 1979. Atmospheric Motion and Air Pollution. John Wiley & Sons. New York.

Eilers, J.M., C.L. Ross, and T.J. Sullivan (eds.). 1994. Status of Air quality and effects of atmospheric pollution on ecosystems in the Pacific NW region of the National Park Service. Tech. Report NPS/NRAQD/NRTR-94/160.

Gives info on 5 National Parks in the PNW: Crater Lake, Craters of the Moon, Mt. Ranier, North Cascades, Olympic. Includes as summary table of some NW spp., lichen sensitivity, study type, parks where sp. is present, country of the study and reference; included with every chapter. The most useful chapt. (my opinion, JLH) is V: Interim Guidelines for the Protection of Sensitive Resources Relative to Air Quality Concerns. Gives a summary of research on vascular plants and sensitivities, as well as more lichen info. Most of the info on lichens is derived from Peterson et al 1992.

Erdman, J.A., and L.P. Gough. 1975. Trace elements in soil, lichens, and grama grass of the Powder River Basin. Geochemical Survey of the Western Coal Regions. Open File Report 75-436, USGS, Denver.

Erdman, J.A., and L.P. Gough. 1977. Variation in the element content of Xanthoparmelia chlorochroa from the Powder River Basin of WY and MT. The Bryologist 80: 292-303.

Elemental conc.for 26 elements are given for Xanthoria parietina in the Powder River basin, using analysis of variance, only 7 showed "statistically significant 'regional' variation at scales above 10 k" (Al, Cd, Cu, F, Pb, Se, Si). The conc. of elements in X. parietina are compared to sagebrush and grama grass.

Esseen, P.A. et al. 1981. Occurrence and ecology of Usnea longissima in central Sweden. Lichenologist 13: 177-190.

[A study of populations of Usnea longissima at 31 localities indicated that the observed decline was due to various forestry practices and, to a minor extent, air pollution. "Specific habitat demands and low dispersal ability make U. longissima very senstive to environmental disturbances."]

Eversman, S. 1976.

Eversman, S. 1980. Observations on two lichen species in the Colstrip area, 1979. In: Preston EM, DW O'Guinn, RA Wilson (eds.), The Environmental Impact of a Coal-Fired Power Plant, Sixth Interim Report. Colstrip MT. pp.185-197. EPA Corvallis OR.

Eversman, S. 1982. Epiphytic lichens of a ponderosa pine forest in southeastern Montana. Bryologist 85: 204-213.

Nineteen lichen spp. were collected from Pinus ponderosa in Custer NF in southeastern MT; 340 trees in four vegetation zones were samples. The dominant lichen sp. at all heights of the trunks and lower branches was Usnea hirta, constituting 31-74% of total lichen cover. The % of U.hirta was highest in the driest vegetation type (PIPO-AGSP) and lowest in the most moist veg. type (PIPO-PRVI). The majority of lichen cover and diversity on trunks was on the lowest 50 cm; diversity and cover increased with ascending moisture levels. Parmeliopsis ambigua, Bryoria fuscescens, Cetraria pinastri increased most substantially from drier to wetter sites. Most of the lichen spp. found in this forest type are regular components of Rocky Mtn and/or northern coniferous forests. Other conifer forest types in the Rocky Mtns and Black Hills support richer lichen floras.

Eversman, S. 1987. Effects of low-level SO2 on Usnea hirta and Parmelia chlorochroa. Bryologist 81: 368-377.

[Field study conducted in Powder River County, Montana. Respiration rates significantly decreased in exposed organisms and 100% of algal cells were plasmolyzed in 60 days. U. hirta was more sensitive than P. chlorochroa, and the lichens were damaged faster than the adjacent vascular plant vegetation.]

Eversman, S, and L.L. Sigal. 1984. "Ultrastructural effects of peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) on two lichen species. Bryologist 87: 112-118.

[Effects of PAN fumigation on Hypogymnia enteromorpha and Parmelia sulcata showed that photosynthetic rates "...decreased in both species, with more decrease in P. sulcata than in H. enteromorpha. Analysis of transmission electronmicrographs revealed abnormally high accumulation of starch in the chloroplasts of both species and slight decreases in amount of pyrenoid area. Anticipated significant deterioration and disappearance of thylakoid membranes did not occur."]

Farkas, E., L. Lokos, and K. Verseghy. 1985. Lichens as indicators of air pollution in the Budapest agglomeration. I. Air pollution map based on floristic data and heavy metal concentration measurements. Acta Botanica Hungarica 31: 45-68.

Farmer, A.M., J.W. Bates, and J.N.B. Bell. 1991. Seasonal variarions in acidic pollutant inputs and their effects on the chemistry of stemflow and epiphyte tissues in three oak woodlands in NW Britain. New Phytologist 115: 431-437.

"Rainfall, throughfall and stemflow chemistry, bark chemistry and gaseous air pollutant levels were monitored for one year within three Quercus petraea woodlands in NW Britain. Tissue chemistry of Lobaria pulmonaria and the moss Isothecium myosuroides were studied at the sites where they were abundant. The sites were found to differ in the levels of acidic and nutrient inputs, bark chemistry and levels of gaseous pollutants, although the latter were low at all sites. The epiphyte tissue chemistry responded to changes in stemflow chemistry across the season." "It is concluded that acid ppt. will affect epiphytes by reducing the bark's buffering capacity and increasing its acidity. The extent to which this occurs will depend on tree spp., soil chemistry, and the nature of the atm. inputs." Critical load for epiphytes is defined.

Farmer, A.M., J.W. Bates, and J.N.B. Bell. 1992. Ecophysiological effects of acid rain on bryophytes and lichens. In: Bates, J.W., and A. M. Farmer (eds.). Bryophytes and Lichens in a Changing Environment. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Literature review includes SO2, Photochemical oxidants, NOx, Wet acidic deposition/fertilizing effect/community changes related. to, Experiments. NW spp: Lobaria pulmonaria, Lobaria scrobiculata, Peltigera membranacea, Hypogymnia physodes, and some Cladonia and Parmelia.

FEMAT. 1993. Forest Ecosystem Management: An Ecological, Economic and Social Assessment. Report of the Frest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team. USDA-Forest Service, USDC-National Oceanic & Atmospheric Admin. and National Marine Fisheries Service, USDI-Bureau of Land Management, Fish & Wildlife Service, National Park Service and the Environmental Protection Agency.

Ferry, B.W., S. Baddeley, D.L. Hawsworth (eds). 1973. Air Pollution and Lichens. London, Athlone Press.

Ferry, B.W., and B.J. Coppins. 1979. Lichen transplant experiments and air pollution studies. Lichenologist 11(1):63-73.

"Several groups of workers have shown that SO2 in solution inhibits both photosynthesis and respiration in lichens, occuring at levels as low as 10-20 ppm (w/w). It has been argued such concentrations could occur in the field. Difficulties in relating lab work to the field include: vacuum infiltration of thalli w/ solutions aren't conducive to maximum photosynthetic rates; measured metabolic processes (resp and Ps) may not show the primary response to SO2; material used may not be representative of the critical phases of the life cycle ( reprod, establishment); using strongly buffered solutions may override lichen buffering abilities; choice of pH might not be relevant to the field situation; fumigation studies w/ solutions tend to yield higher sensitivities than those using gas in the case of Hypogymnia physodes (Turk, et al. 1974). The results of a series of transplant experiments with corticolous lichens were designed to assess relative sensitivities to SO2 pollution by measuring physiological damage. The results were compared with results from lab experiments and mapping data. Acid bark species transplants correlated well with mapping data. Basic bark species gave a poor correlation between the three sets of data. NW spp: H. physodes (acid bark sp.), Ramalina farinacea (basic), Parmelia sulcata (basic), Xanthoria parietina (basic).

Fields, R.F. 1988. Physiological responses of lichens to air pollutant fumigations. In: Nash, T.H. III (ed.) Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Biblio. Lichenol. 30. J. Cramer, Berlin-Stuttgart.

The physiological responses of lichens when exposed to laboratory fumigations with such pollutants as SO2, NO2, peroxyacetyl nitrate are viewed. ["The response variables used to measure metabolic disturbance include inhibition of photosynthetic fixation, changes in respiration rates, increases in potassium efflux and total electrolyte leakage, as well as chlorophyll degradation. The order of sensitivity of lichen physiological processes to fumigation appears to be: N2 fixation > K+ efflux/total electrolyte leakage > photosynthesis, respiration > pigment status."] Due to problems encountered while exposing the lichens to the gas--sensitivity may have been greatly underestimated--see Hyvarinen et al. 1993. While different fumigation methods are mentioned in the intro, the table doesn't give that info. NW spp: Bryoria fuscescens, Cladina rangiferina, Cladonia furcata, Collema nigrescens, Dermatocarpon miniatum, Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia enteromorpha, Hypogymnia physodes, Lobaria pulmonaria, Parmelia saxatilis, Parmelia sulcata, Peltigera aphthosa,l Peltigera canina, Peltigera collina, Peltigera rufescens, Physcia adscendens, Physcia stellaris, Platismatia glauca, Punctelia subrudecta, Ramalina farinacea, Rhizoplaca chrysoleuca, Rhizoplaca melanophthalma, Xanthoparmelia chlorochroa, Xanthoria fallax, Xanthoria parietina.

Fields, R.D., and L.L. St. Clair. 1984. The effects of SO2 on photosynthesis and carbohydrate transfer in the two lichens: Collema polycarpon and Parmelia chlorochroa.. American J. Botany 71: 986-998.

"Exposure of Xanthoria parietina and Collema polycarpon to 1 and 2 ppm gaseous SO2 initially stimulated photosynthesis but prolonged exposure depressed it. Carbohydrate transfer decreased on both species but increased significantly after a 12 hr exposure in C. polycarpon. Interference with normal oxidation-reduction and denaturation of enzymes and membrane proteins by sulfite and bisulfite ions may account for the observed results. Increased conductivity of leacheates reflected SO2-induced damage at both 1 and 2 ppm SO2."

Folkeson, L., and E. Andersson-Bringmark. 1988. Impoverishment of vegetation in a coniferous forest polluted by copper and zinc. Can. J. Bot. 66: 417.

"Copper and zinc concentrations in raw humus were elevated> 440 and > 80 times, respectively, near and old and new foundry -- virtually no SO2 was being emitted. Effects on veg. were most evident in the ground layer and 4 stages or zones were defined: 1. common mosses of mature coniferous forests began to decline 2. Lichens of mature dry forests were reduced in cover. 3. Pioneers typical of successional communities increased slightly in cover 4. Even tolerant spp. of lichens and mosses disappeared and only Pohlia nutans remained. Deterioration of the ground layer makes the polluted thin soil prone to erosion." NW lichens: Cladina rangiferina, Cladonia chlorophaea, C.furcata, C. squamosa Cladonia ochrochlora, C. carneola, C.cenotea, C.pyxidata.

Follmann, G. 1995. On the impoversihment of the lichen flora and the retrogression of the lichen vegetation in coastal central and northern Chile during the last decades. Crypt. Bot. 5: 224-231.

Gailey, F.A.Y., G.H. Smith, L.J. Rintoul, and O.Ll. Lloyd. 1985. Metal deposition patterns in central Scotland, as determined by lichen transplants. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 5: 291-309.

["Lichen transplants of Hypogymnia physodes were used in a high-density network of sites for collecting airborne metals from the atmosphere in Armadale, a small industrial town in central Scotland. The mapping of the concentrations of various metals revealed a gradient of metal values which decreased outwards from the town's steel foundry."]

Gailey, F.A.Y., and O.Ll. Lloyd. 1986a,b,c. Methodological investigations into low technology monitoring of atmospheric metal pollution: Parts 1,2,3. Environmental Pollution (Series B) 12:41-59, 85-109, 61-74.

Part 1: Env.Poll. 12:41-59. Methodological investigations determined the optimal sizes of three types of transplant samplers: the spherical moss bag (SMB), the lichen Hypogymnia physodes and the tak, or synthetic fabric sampler. Various sizes of samplers were exposed for two months near a source of metallic atm. poll. Analysis of the data showed that the optimal size for the SMBs was 0.1-0.2 gm d.w., H. physodes thallus diameter of 0.8-1.2 cm and a surface area of 70 cm2 for the tak.

Part 2: Comparisons of indigenous: moss, Lecanora conizaeoides, grass, and soils; and transplants: SMBs, H. physodes , and tak. Other samplers were added: flat moss bags, fresh moss and water washed SMBs, dead H. physodes and a fruticose lichen. All samplers, except the surface soils gave concentrations of most metals that were well within an acceptable range of variability. Of the samplers flat moss bags, water washed SMBs and dead H. physodes have very replicable concentrations while the fresh moss SMBs and the fruticose lichen gave the least consistent values.

Galun, M., and R. Ronen. 1988. Interactions of lichens and pollutants. pp. 55-72 In: Galun, M (ed.), CRC Handbook of Lichenology Vol III. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton.

Galun, M., J.Garty, and R. Ronen. 1984. Lichens as indicators of air pollution. Webbia 38:371-383.

Garty, J., Y. Karary, and J. Harel. 1993. The impact of air pollution on the integrity of cell membranes and chlorophyll in the lichen Ramalina duriaei (De Not.) Bagl. transplanted to industrial sites in Israel. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 24(4): 455-460.

Geiser, L. 1995. Monitoring Air Quality Using Lichens. Methods and Strategy for the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area, Deshutes, Gifford-Pinchot, Mt. Hood, Willamette and Siuslaw National Forests of Oregon and Washington. USDA-Forest Service Siuslaw National Forest, Corvallis, OR. Unpublished manual.

Geiser, L., and M. Boyll. 1994. Air Quality in the Mt. Hood Wilderness: Preliminary Analysis of 1993 Lichen Chemical Data. A report prepared for the Air Resource Management Program of the Mt. Hood National Forest, Nancy Diaz, Program Manager.

Geiser, L.H., C.C. Derr, and K.L. Dillman. 1994. Air quality monitoring on the Tongass National Forest: Methods and Baselines using Lichens. USDA- Forest Service Alaska Region Technical Bulletin R10-TB-46.

Gerson, U., and M.R. D. Seaward. 1977. Lichen-inverterbrate associations. In: Lichen Ecology, M.R.D. Seaward, ed. Academic Press, London. Pp. 69-119.

Gilbert, O.L. 1965. Lichens as Indicators of Air Pollution in the Tyne Valley Ecology and the Industrial Society. Fifth Symposium of the British Ecological Society. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Pp 35-47.

Gilbert, O.L. 1969. The effect of SO2 on lichens and bryophytes around Newcastle upon Tyme. In: Air Pollution: proceedings of the first European symposium; Wageningen, Netherlands: Center for Agricultural Publ. and Documentation. pp.223-235

Gilbert, O.L. 1970. A biological scale for the estimation of sulphur dioxide air polllution. New Phytologist 69: 629-634.

This is basically the same scale Richardson (1992) cites. "To discover a general order of tolerance, lichens and bryophytes were examined along a wide belt of country stretching from an area of pure air to the middle of Newcastle upon Tyne. Once the order had been approximately fixed, it was checked on different radii out from the city until the tolerance limit of the major species had been determined." Zones based on SO2 mg/m3: 1: > 170; 2: 125-170; 3: 60-125; 4: 45-60; 5: 40-45; 6 < 40. Includes table of substrates: acid stone walls, asbestos roofs, boles of deciduous trees.

Gilbert, O.L. 1971. The effect of airborne fluorides on lichens. Lichenologist 5: 26-32.

Gilbert, O.L. 1985. Environmental effects of airborne fluorides for aluminum smelting at Invergordon, Scotland 1971-1983. Environmental Pollution (Series A) 39: 293-302.

A network of 20 recording stations was set up to monitor an aluminum smelting plant. The recording stations were all within 12 k of the plant. In 1971, less than 3 months after the smelter began operation, the regional forester reported spectacular damage to lichens on exposed trees 1-7 k from the smelter. The smelter was eventually shut down in 1983, late 1975 was determined the peak damage period. NW spp Ramalina farinacea is mentioned and F conc. are given.

Gilbert, O.L. 1986. Field evidence for an acid rain effect on lichens. Environmental Pollution (Series A). 40: 227-231.

"Field evidence for an acid rain effect on lichens at two sites in northern England --well established pops of Lobaria pulmonaria on oak and Sticta limbata on ash in remote rural areas were observed to decline to extinction. This was accompanied by bark acidification. Only lichens containing a blue-green algal symbiont (Nostoc) and growing on poorly buffered acidic habitats were affected."

Gough, L.P. 1975. Cryptogam distributions on Pseudotsuga menziesii and Abies lasiocarpa in the Front Range, Boulder Co., CO. Bryologist 78: 124-145.

Included bark conditions for 5 conifer spp. and Populus trichocarpa. " The rate of bark scaling appeared to be the most important substrate feature governing the abundance of epiphytic growth on different conifer spp." Includes a table w/ bark pH and moisture holding capacities, which may interaction with pollutants to affect lichen spp.

Gough, L.P., and J.A. Erdman. 1977. Influence of a Coal-Fired Powerplant on the Element Content of Xanthoparmelia chlorochroa. Bryologist 80: 492-501.

The operations of the Dave Johnston coal-fired power plant near Glenrock WY have had a measurable effect on trace-element conc. in Xanthoparmelia chlorochroa, which is common to the area. Conc. of 35 elements were measured in samples collected along upwind and downwind transects. Of these elements, conc. of Ca, Fl, Li, Sel, Str, U as well as ash yields, decreased with distance from the power plant. compared to background levels established for this lichen form the Powder River Basin only the selenium values near the power plant are considered unusually high.

Gough, L.P., J.L. Peard, R.C. Severson, L.L. Jackson, et al. 1988. Determining baseline element composition of lichens: I. Parmelia sulcata at Theodore Roosevelt NP, ND. Water, Air, and Soil Poll. 38: 157-167.

"Element-conc. baselines are given for Parmelia sulcata and assoc. soils. Xanthoparmelia chlorochroa was found sporadically and therefore only representative conc. ranges are reported for this sp." "Very little (usually <10%) of the variability in the element data for lichen material occurs regionally (> 7.2 k); thus, P. sulcata is, in general, chemically similar throughout the park. This same uniformity was found for soil geochemistry." "No instances of elemental phototoxic conditions were found; however, P. sulcata apparently possesses large conc. of Ba, Cu, Fe, Pb, S, V and possibly Zn."

Gough, L.P., L.L. Jackson, et al. 1987. Element baselines for Redwood National Park, California--Composition of the Epiphytic Lichens Hypogymnia enteromorpha and Usnea spp: Open-file Report 87-169. U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Denver.

Gough, L. P., L. L. Jackson, and J. A. Sacklin. 1988. Determining baseline element composition of lichens. II. Hypogymnia enteromorpha and Usnea spp. at Redwood National Park, California. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 38: 169-180.

Elemental baselines are presented for Hypogymnia enteromorpha and Usnea spp. Geometric means are used in my tables and are based on n=29, because 6 of the original 35 samples are analytic splits, the method cited to obtain the geometric mean is Cohen (Miesch, 1976). Gough et al expected larger analytic error terms for Usnea spp, than for H. enteromorpha, but H. enteromorpha had 13 elements with error terms of > 50%, where Usnea spp. had only 5. Ultramafic soils are noted as probably being responsible for elevated levels of Cr, Co, Mg, Mn, and Ni in lichen samples.

Goward, T. 1987. Notes on the distributional ecology of epiphytic macrolichens in the Kamloops area, with special reference to the wolf lichen (Letharia vulpina).138: Ministry of Environment and Parks, Waste Management Branch, Southern Interior Region, Kamloops.

Goyal, R., and M.R.D. Seaward. 1981, 1982a, 1982b. New Phytol. 89:631, 90:73, 90:85.

"The nature of the accumulation patterns within the lichen is assessed in terms of metal localization within the different thallial components (ie. rhizinae, thallus w/out rhizinae, , phycobioint, mycobiont)" "Peltigera canina, P.polydactyla, Peltigera rufescens, Cladonia furcata, C. implexa, C. unicalis...were analyzed for Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn." "Metal accumulation capacity (µg/gm) of the rhizinae was maximum for Fe Mn, Pb. The phycobiont was found to have maximal accumulation capacity for Cu, Ni, Zn. The metal accumulation capacities by rhizinae and thallus without rhizinae as well as phycobiont and mycobiont without rhizinae were found to be interrelated and were dependent upon the biologically available metal conc. in their assoc. soils as well as the type of substrate." "Rhizinae accumulate the highest conc. of all metals under enhanced environments." "The observed modifications of the morphology and histology of P. canina and P. rufescens in metal-polluted environments are: reduction in thallial size and rhizinal length, and dense rhizinal growth, profusely-branched veins and hypertrophy of the medulla. The value of terricolous lichens as bioindicators of metal-enriched substrata is related to the biologically available metal concentrations in the assoc. soils and the nature of the substratum." "Lab experiments critically assess the role of rhizinae and thallial surfaces of P. canina in the accumulation and translocation of metals (Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) from external medium to and within the thallus."

Grace, B., T.J. Gillespie, and K.J. Puckett. 1985a. Uptake of gaseous sulphur dioxide by the lichen Cladina rangiferina. Canadian J. Botany 63: 797-805.

["Potassium release was shown to increase with an increasing uptake of sulphur dioxide (time-integrated flux), but was not uniquely related to sulphur dioxide concentration alone."]

Grace, B., T.J. Gillespie, and K.J. Puckett. 1985b. Sulphur dioxide threshold concentration values for Cladina rangiferina in the Mackenzie Valley, N. W. T. Canadian J. Botany 63: 806-812.

["A simulation model for the prediction of threshold concentration values of gaseous sulphur dioxide for damage to Cladina rangiferina over a 24-h period is presented. Boundary-layer resistance was found to be not as important as internal thallus resistance to sulphur dioxide uptake. Thus, it was possible to determine the threshold atmospheric SO2 concentrations under field conditions that would produce a specified uptake and hence lichen damage."]

Gries, C., M.-J. Sanz, and T.H. Nash III. 1995. The effect of SO2 fumigation on CO2 gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence and chlorophyll degradation in different lichen secies from western North America. Crypt. Bot. 5: 239-246.

Gunther, A.J. 1988. Effect of simulated acid rain on nitrogenase activity in the lichen genus Peltigera under field and laboratory conditions. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 38: 379-385.

"Lichens of the genus Peltigera were exposed to simulated acid rain in the lab and at a field site in SW Alaska. Exposure to simulated rainfall of pH 4.4 had no effect upon acetylene reduction in P. rufescens after experiments of 28 and 60 days duration, although in the former experiment there was some evidence of a transient effect after 14 days. Simulated acid rain of pH 3.4 or 4.4 also had no effect on nitrogenase activity in P. aphthosa during a 21-day field study, indicating that nitrogenase activity in Peltigera is not sensitive to precipitation in this range of acidity."

Gunther, P.M., B.S. Horn, and G.D. Babb. 1983. Small mammal populations and food selection in relation to timber harvest practices in the western Cascade Mountains. Northwest Science 57:32-44.

Hale, M.E. 1979. Phytosociology of corticolous cryptogams in the upland forests of southern Wisconsin. Ecology 36(1): 45-63.

Hale, M.E. 1981. Lichens as bioindicators and Monitors of Air Pollution in the Flat Tops Wilderness Area, Colorado. Final Report: USFS Contract No. ON RFP R2-81-SP35.

Hale, M.E. 1983 Cortical structure in Physcia and Phaeophyscia . Lichenologist 643-651

Hallingback, T. 1989. Occurrence and ecology of the lichen Lobaria scrobiculata in southern Sweden. Lichenologist 21: 331-341.

[Revisitation and study of 50 sites where Lobaria scrobiculata had been collected between 1850 and 1950, as well as 17 sites discovered since 1980. Of the old sites, the species was confirmed at only 2.] The present occurrence and vitality of L. scrobiculata were investigated at 67 localities (50 old and 17 new) in southern Sweden. Before 1950,L. scrobiculatawas found at more than 300 localities in southern Sweeden. However it was only confirmed at two out of 50 thoroughly investigated old localities. An investigation of recently found localities (new) and confirmed old sites showed that there have been a decrease in pop. sie, thallus size, fertility,, number of phorophytes, and cliff colonization. In southern Sweden today, L. scrobiculata is confined to old deciduous trees in regions with comparatively low air pollution and a high relative humidity. Apothecia have not been found in southern Sweden since 1947, although in the past, fertile material was collected from 35 localities in the region. The author suggests that this species, like many other lichens with the cyanobacterium Nostoc as photobiont, is currently more endangered by air pollution than by any other human activity and that it is seriously endangered in the southern part of Sweden.

Hallingback, T., and O. Kellner. 1991. Effects of simulated nitrogen rich and acid rain on the nitrogen-fixing lichen Peltigera apthosa (L.) Willd.

"The nitrogen-fixing lichen Peltigera apthosa was treated under semi-natural conditions with simulated rain containing different combinations of ammonium, nitrate, and sulfuric acid. Nitrogen in neutral solution had no negative effect on the nitrogen fixing rate. Sulfuric acid had a negative effect on the nitrogen fixing rate, especially in combination with ammonium. (Low pH is the main reason why acid rain is detrimental to P. apthosa.) The results could suggest an explanation for the sudden decline in P. apthosa. in southern Sweden."

Hanley, T.A., C.T. Robbins, and D.E. Spalinger. 1989. Forest habitats and the nutritional ecology of Sitka black-tailed deer; a research synthesis with implications for forest management. USDA-Forest Service Pcific Northwest Experiment Station GTR.

Harper, K.T., and J. R. Marble. 1988. A role of nonvascular plants in management of semiarid rangelands. In: Vegetation Science Applications for Rangeland Analysis and Management, ed. P. T. Tueller, pp. 135-60. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Hawsworth, D.L., and F. Rose. 1970. Qualitative scale for estimating sulphur dioxide pollution in England and Wales using epiphytic lichens. Nature (London) 227: 145-148.

Scale designed for use in Britain on deciduous trees in open areas. NW spp: non-nitrophilous -- Hypogymnia physodes, Parmelia sulcata, Hypogymnia enteromorpha, Collema nigrescens, Peltigera rufescens, Parmelia saxatilis, Melanelia glabratula, Puntelia subrudecta, Parmeliopsis ambigua, Ramalina farinacea, Evernia prunastri, Platismatia glauca, Melanelia exasperatula, Bryoria fuscescens, Normandina pulchella, Lobaria pulmonaria, Lobaria scrobiculata, Sticta limbata, Teloschistes flavicans. Nitrophilous: Physcia adscendens, Xanthoria parietina, Phaeophyscia orbicularis, Physcia tenella, Ramalina farinacea, Xanthoria candelaria, Physcia aipolia, Candelaria concolor, Ramalina pollinaria.

Hawsworth, D.L., and F. Rose. 1976. Lichens as Pollution Monitors. The Institute of Biology's Studies in Biology no.66. London: Edward Arnold Ltd.

A comprehensive study including: What are lichens?, SO2, other Pollutants, other Factors affecting Lichen Distribution, Mapping Air Pollution Patterns, Impact of SO2 on the British Lichen Flora, Trends and Conservation, Appendices on ID and Methodology. NW spp:Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Ramalina farinacea, Parmelia saxatilis, Parmelia sulcata, Peltigera rufescens, Teloschistes flavicans, Xanthoria elegans, Nephroma laevigatum, Caloplaca saxicola, Physcia caesia, Pannaria rubiginosa, Normandina pulchella, Lobaria pulmonaria, Lobaria scrobiculata, Sticta limbata, Xanthoria parietina, Physcia adscendens, Phaeophyscia orbicularis, Physcia tenella, Xanthoria candelaria, Ramalina pollinaria, Bryoria fuscescens, Candelaria concolor, Platismatia glauca. "Lobarion" and "Xanthorion" communities are explained.

Herben, T., and J. Liska. 1984. The use of average number of neighbours for predicting lichen sensitivity: a case study. Lichenologist 16: 289-296.

4 figures. 1 table. [Study in Czechoslovakia compared the rates of disappearance of lichen species with the ecological index (average number of neighbors of a given species). "Linear correlation showed that this ecological index is a reasonably accurate indicator of species sensitivity." This measure was not as reliable for non-SO2 related conditions.]--when the selection of spp. was performed according to criteria other than SO2 sensitivity, viz. according to the predilections of lichens for eutrophicated bark, the ecological index proved reliable only when trees whose conditions were non-optimal for this group were excluded. When applied to the group of spp. that avoids eutrophicated bark, the ecological index proved most reliable, although the group of nitrophilious spp. may also be used in air poll. indicator studies. NW spp growing on eutrophicated bark (Nitrophilous)--w/no reference to the barks N2 content: Melanelia exasperatula, Parmelia sulcata, Physcia adscendens, Physcia aipolia, Physcia caesia, Physcia tenella, Physcia stellaris, Phaeophyscia orbicularis, Physconia enteroxantha, Ramalina farinacea, Xanthoria parietina, Xanthoria polycarpa. NW Non-nitroph spp: Bryoria fuscescens, Candelaria concolor, Tuckermannopsis chlorophylla, Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Melanelia glabratula, Platismatia glauca, Ramalina pollinaria, Usnea hirta. Lichen sensitivity was assessed according to the rate of change of individual lichen occurrence over a 5-yr period. The most common phorophytes were Tilia spp., Fraxinus excelsior, Acer platonoides, and Quercus spp.

Herzig, R., et al. 1989. Passive biomonitoring with lichens as a part of an integrated biological measuring system for monitoring air pollution in Switzerland. International J. Environmental Analytical Chemistry. 35: 43-57.

"Hypogymnia physodes possesses good accumulation capacity for important air pollutants. The passive biomonitoring and calibrated lichen indication method (IAP) compose together an integral biological testing system for air pollution in Switzerland. IAP is useful in measuring total air pollution, while passive biomonitoring gives precise conclusions on prevalent single pollutants. IAP is based on presence/absence and classifies by 5 zones, 1 being lichen desert and 5 being the normal zone. The authors used passive biomonitoring: multi-element analysis on H. physodes using samples from trees in the vicinity near each of the Bieler emmission stations -- both methods were used and results compared. H. physodes is noted in the intro as being one of the most studied plant sp. in relation to different emmission components (SO2, NOx, O3, dust, heavy metals, pesticides, and other organic compounds). The authors found H. physodes accumulation: environmental deposition as follows: Pb, Cu, S -- and SO2 five yr mean all correlated well. There were problems with Zn (contaminated by zinc fencing and street lamps). Calibration by natural samples of H. physodes and transplants worked equally well and the natural (passive) method has the advantage of lower cost.

Herzig, R., et al. 1990. Lichens as biological indicators of air pollution in Switzerland: passive biomonitoring as part of an integrated measuring system for monitoring air pollution. In: H. Lieth and B. Markert (eds.). Element Concentration Cadasters in Ecosystems Methods of Assessment and Evaluation. 141: VCH Verlagsgesellschaft, Weinheim. 317p.

[Hypogymnia physodes was used as the biomonitoring species. "With the aid of passive biomonitoring it is possible to determine which single(s) pollutant(s) affect(s) the lichen community, discovered by calibrated lichen method and seem to be relevant in producing patterns of degradations in lichen vegetation."]

Hoffman, G.R. 1974. The Influence of a paper pulp mill on the ecological distribution of epiphytic cryptogams in the vicinity of Lewiston, Idaho and Clarkston, Washington. Environmental Pollution. 7: 283-301.

Holopainen, T.H. 1983. Ultrastructural changes in epiphytic lichens, Bryoria capillaris and Hypogymnia physodes, growing near a fertilizer plant and a pulp mill in central Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici 20: 169-185.

Holopainen, T.H. 1984. Cellular injuries in epiphytic lichens transplanted to air polluted areas. Nordic J. Botany 4: 393-408.

Holopainen, T., and L. Karenlampi. 1984. Injuries to lichen ultrastructure caused by sulphur dioxide fumigations. New Phytologist 98: 285-294.

Holopainen, T., and M. Kauppi. 1989. A comparison of light, fluorescence and electron microscopic observations in assessing the SO2 injury of lichens under different moisture conditions. Lichenologist. 21: 119-134.

Hypogymnia physodes, Bryoria capillaris, Peltigera canina, were fumigated with 215 mg/m3 (6hrs/day, 5 days/wk) and were examined with electron, fluorescence, and light microscopes. Electron was the most sensitive method for revealing cellular injury. The intervals of examination were 5,10, 15, and 20 days. All spp. were clearly more sensitive to SO2 when cultured in high humidity and additional moisture tended to protect the lichens from injury.

Hornveldt, R. 1974. The response of epiphytic lichens to fluoride pollution. pp. 93-94. In: Karenlampi, L. (ed.), Proceedings, Kuoppio, Finland. Kuopio Natualist's Soc.

Huebert, D.B., S.J. L'Hirondelle, P.A. Addison. 1985. The effects of sulphur dioxide on net CO2 assimilation in the lichen Evernia mesomorpha Nyl. New Phytologist 100: 643-651.

Hultengren, S., C. Kannesten , and S. Svensson. 1993. Om nagra oceaniska lavar i Sydvastsverige [On some oceanic lichens in southwestern Sweden]. Graphis Scripta 5: 24-38.

[Discusses the present status of the oceanic lichens Degelia plumbea, Lobaria amplissima, L. scrobiculata, L. virens, Normandina pulchella, Pannaria conoplea, P. mediterranea, and P. rubiginosa, and makes comparisons to the results of Gunnar Degelius in 1935.]

Hutchinson, T.C., M. Dixon, and M. Scott. 1986. The effect of simulated acid rain on feather mosses and lichens of the boreal forest. Water, Air, & Soil Poll. 31: 409-416.

"...field sprayed lichens were also visibly damaged. At pHs less than 3.5 Cladina rangiferina and C. stellaris had reduced podetial height and dry wt; while C. mitis was affected by a combination of the acid rain treatment and other associated factors." [Study in Canada on Cladina spp. "While ambient rains of pH 4.2 may not in themselves be harmful to the boreal ground flora, it is apparent that the feather mosses and lichens, lacking a cuticle and true roots, are very sensitive to occasional, extremely acid rain events."]

Insarova, I.D.,G.E. Insarov, S.Brakenhielm, S. Hultengren, P.O. Martinsson, and S.M. Semenov. 1992. Lichen Sensitivity and Air Pollution - A Review of Literature Data. 150 Report 4007, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Uppsala.

[Provides a tabular summary of sensitivity levels, etc., for 259 lichen species, based on the literature. Obtainable from: The Information Department, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, S-171 85 Solna, Sweden.] Includes NW spp: Bryoria capillaris, Bryoria fuscescens, Bryoria trichodes, Candelaria concolor, Tucchl, Vulpicida pinastri, Cladonia squamosa, Collema nigrescens, Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Hypogymnia tubulosa, Leptogium cyanescens, Leptogium saturninum, Lobaria pulmonaria, Lobaria scrobiculata, Menegazzia terebrata, Nephroma bellum, Nephroma helveticum, Nephroma laevigatum, Nephroma parile, Normandina pulchella, Pannaria mediterranea, Pannaria rubiginosa, Parmelia saxatilis, Parmelia sulcata, Parmeliopsis ambigua, Parmeliopsis hyperopta, Peltigera canina, Peltigera collina, Phaeophyscia orbicularis, Physcia adscendens, Physcia aipolia, Physcia biziana, Physcia caesia, Physcia stellaris, Physcia tenella, Physconia enteroxantha, Physconia perisidiosa , Platismatia glauca, Ramalina farinacea, Ramalina pollinaria, Ramalina roesleri, Xanthoria polycarpa. Most of the references are European and deal with deciduous tree spp. Gives pH is for hardwoods. SO2 is the major pollutant listed most of the time.

Jackson, L.L., L. Geiser, T. Blett, C. Gries, and D. Haddow. 1996. Biogeochemistry of lichens and mosses in and near Mt. Zirkel Wilderness, Routt National Forest, Colorado: Influences of coal-fired power plant emissions. USDI- US Geological Survey Open-File Report 96-295.

Johnsen, I., and U. Sochting. 1973. Influence of air pollution on the epiphytic lichen vegetation and bark properties of deciduous trees in the Copenhagen area. Oikos 24: 344-351.

"Epiphytic lichen veg. of trees in Copenhagen was mapped, pH, total S content and buffer capacity of the lichen substrate were measured. The SO-2 isopleths coincide well with the inner distrib. limits of the lichens indicating specific critical SO2 levels for different spp. Bark properties changed approaching city center: avg. pH decreased from 5-3, S dry wt. increased from 25% to 45%; buffer capacity was higher at city center and rural areas than it was in the middle area." SO2 conc. are compared w/ HR 1970 scale.

Johnsen, I., and U. Sochting. 1976. Distribution of crytogamic epiphytes in a Danish city in relation to air pollution and bark properties. Bryologist 79: 86-92.

"Distribution of epiphytic lichens and bryophytes in the Aalborg-Norresunby area of Denmark were mapped and compared with pollution data and bark properties. The distributions are well-correlated with SO2 emissions and bark pH. No correlation was found with dust fall levels, bark buffer capacity, or S content of bark."

Johnson, D.W. 1979. Air Pollution and the Distribution of Corticolous Lichens in Seattle, Washington. Northwest Science 53: 257-263.

Lichen species were sampled at 85 sites within the city of Seattle. These data expressed numerically, were used to construct a map consisting of five zones which reflected variances in the composition of the lichen flora along air pollution gradients. The topography of the city, land use patterns, and prevailing winds were found to affect the dispersion of air pollutants and therefore the distribution of lichen species. NW spp: Candelaria concolor, Cladonia chlorophaea, Hypogymnia physodes, Parmelia sulcata, Xanthoria candelaria, Hypogymnia tubulosa \, Parmeliopsis ambigua, Usnea hirta, Ramalina farinacea, Evernia prunastri .

Jurgling, P. 1971. Rindflechten und Luftverunreinigung im Stadtgebiet von Graz. mitt. Naturwiss. Ver. Steiermark 100: 151-189.

Jurgling, P. 1975. Epiphytische flechten als bioindikatoren der luftverunreinigung. Bibliotheca Lich. 4:165 pp.

Kärnefelt, I., and J.E. Mattsson. 1989. Cetraria cucullata and C. nivalis, two vanishing lichens from southernmost Sweden. International J. Mycology and Lichenology. 4: 299-305.

[Human activities and development seem to be the primary cause for the decline in these species, not regional air pollution.]

Kauppi, M., and A. Mikkonen. 1980. Floristic versus single species analysis in the use of epiphytic lichens as indicators of air pollution in a boreal forest region, northern Finland. Flora 169: 255-281.

Kauppi, M. 1983. Role of lichens as air pollution monitors. Memoranda Soc. Fauna Flora Fennica 59: 83-86.

Kershaw, K.A. 1972. The relationship between moisture content and net assimilation rate of lichen thalli and its ecological significance. Can. J. Botany 50: 543-555.

Investigates the relationship between net assimilation rates (respiration + photosynthesis)and percentage thallus saturation. NW spp: Xanthoria fallax, Peltigera praetextata, Parmelia sulcata. Physiological plasticity is discussed in terms of ecological niches. The mycobiont may be the contributor to plasticity.

Kuusinen, M., K.Mikkola, and E.L. Jukola-Sulonen. 1990. Epiphytic lichens on conifers in the 1960's to 1980's in Finland. In: P. Kauppi, et al. (eds.) Acidification in Finland. 145: Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 397p.

[Long term studies on the frequency of Usnea, Bryoria and Hypogymnia physodes in litterfall, and the (IAP) mapping of the occurrence and abundance of these 3 plus 10 other common lichens on more than 6,000 trees throughout Finland have documented the effects of increased sulphur deposition, especially in the southern part of the country.] NW spp: Alectoria sarmentosa, Parmeliopsis ambigua, Tuckermannopsis chlorophylla, Vulpicida pinastri, Parmeliopsis hyperopta, Platismatia glauca, Parmelia sulcata, Evernia prunastri.

Laaksovirta, K., H. Olkkonen, and P. Alakuijala. 1976. Observations on the lead content of lichen and bark adjacent to a highway in southern Finland. Environ. Poll. 11.

"Lead contents of Hypogymnia physodes and its substrate, Pinus sylvestris bark were studied aling a busy four-lane highway on the coast of southern Finland. The decrease in the lead content of the lichens was statistically significant between 20-100 m from the road, but not between 100-200 m. There appeared to be no correlation between the lead content of lichens and traffic density. In this study, bark was a better indicator than lichens for lead emission from motor vehicles. This could be caused by effective lead accumulation in lichens even where there was moderate traffic flow."

Lawry, J.D. 1986. Lichens as lead and sulfur monitors in Shenendoah NP, VA. Ann.Meeting of the Botanical Soc.of America. Amherst, MA.

Lawrey, J.D., and M.E. Hale. 1979. Lichen growth response to stress induced by automobile exhaust pollution. Science 204: 423-424.

Lawrey, J.D., and M.E. Hale. 1988. Lichens as indicators of atmospheric quality in the Dolly Sods and Otter Creek Wildernesses of the Monongahela NF, WV.

Lawrey, J.D., and M. E. Hale, Jr. 1981. Retrospective study of lichen lead accumulation in the northwestern United States. Bryologist 84(4): 449-456.

LeBlanc, F. 1969. Epiphytes and air pollution. In: Air Pollution, Proc. of the First Eur. Congress on the Inf. of Air Poll. on Plant and Animals. Wageningen.

LeBlanc, F., and J. De Sloover. 1970. Relation between industrialization and the distribution and growth of epiphytic lichens and mosses in Montreal. Can. J. Botany 48:1485-1496.

Epiphytic mosses and lichens are very sensitive to air poll. Their gradual disappearance from large cities and from the vicinity of industrialized complexes is due, mostly to phytoxicants. A simple method to map the long-range effect of air pollution on corticolous epiphytes is described. An IAP based on the number of species present, their coverage and frequency, and their specific tolerance to pollutants can be expressed quantitatively. NW spp: Melanelia subargentifera, Melanelia subaurifera, Parmelia sulcata, Physcia adscendens, Physcia aipolia , Phaeophyscia orbicularis, Physcia stellaris , Xanthoria fallax, Candelaria concolor.

LeBlanc, F., G.Comeau, and D.N. Rao. 1971. Fluoride injury symptoms in epiphytic lichens and mosses. Can. J. Bot. 49(9): 1691-1698.

"Arvida, Quebec, in the vicinity of an aluminum factory that releases volatile fluorides and HF. Lichen and moss bearing bark disks, cut from an unpolluted area were fixed in groups of six on boards and placed at 15 sites in different directions from the factory plus an additional control site. All disks were photographed in color and b/w. Two boards were used per site, one being removed at 4 mos, the other at 12mos. The lichens and mosses exposed in control and polluted areas were compared with respect to color, morphology, plasmolysis in algal cells, loss of green color, the nature of reactions towards neutral red and TCC, absorbtion spectra of chlorophyll and F concentrations. Results indicate that F-pollution affects moisture balance, causes chlorophyll damage, and produces other symtoms of injury which could lead to ultimate death of the organism." NWspp: Parmelia sulcata.

LeBlanc, F., and D.N. Rao. 1973a. Effects of sulphur dioxide on lichen and moss transplants. Ecology 54(3): 612-617.

"Injury symptoms in lichen and moss transplants have been correlated with the SO2 concentrations prevailing at their exposure sites in the Sudbury area during 1970. For this purpose, bark-disks bearing lichens and mosses were cut out from an unpolluted region, photographed , inventoried, mounted onto boards in groups of six and placed at 19 sites in the 5 SO2 zones. After one years the transplants were re-photographed, removed and compared with respect to external and internal morphology, biomass, acidity, total S, and chlorophyll. The results indicate that different conc. of SO2 produce different sets of harmful effects which appear to be more or less directly related to the levels of pollution. A quantitative correlation has been sought between the levels of injuries produced in these organisms and the levels of SO2 to which they are exposed in the field. NW spp: Parmelia sulcata.

LeBlanc, F., and D.N. Rao. 1973b. Evaluation of the pollution and drought hypothesis in relation to lichens and bryophytes in urban environments. Bryologist 76: 1019.

"The evidences on the pollution and drought hypothesis, which seek to explain the rarity of lichens and bryophytes in urban environments, have been critically examined. It is concluded that the premises and logic of the drought hypothesis are not acceptable. In the present paper, the importance of experimentation and of phytosociological quantification in ecological hypothesis are stressed." Shows by area lichen and moss research w/respect to air pollution.

LeBlanc, F., and D.N. Rao. 1975. Effects of air pollutants on lichens and bryophytes. pp. 237-272 In: Mudd, J.B. and T.T Kozlowski (eds.), Responses of Plants to Air Pollution. Academic Press, New York.

LeBlanc, F., D.N. Rao, and G. Comeau. 1972a. The epiphytic vegetation of Populus balsamifera and its significance as an air pollution indicator in Sudbury Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 50: 519-528. LeBlanc, F., D.N. Rao, and G. Comeau. 1972b. Indices of atmospheric purity and fluoride pollution pattern in Arvida, Quebec. Can. J. Bot. 50: 991-998.

"IAP of 42 sites located in all directions of an aluminum plant over 250 k were determined on the basis of phytosociology of epiphytes of Populus balsamifera. Index values were delineated into 6 IAP zones to represent different levels of F pollution. A relative picture was obtained by F accumulation in Parmelia sulcata thalli transplanted at various sites in the area." The author also give good definitions of the values used in the IAP determination. NW spp: Parmelia sulcata, Physcia stellaris, Phaeophyscia orbicularis, Physcia adscendens, Candelaria concolor, Xanthoria polycarpa, Melanelia subaurifera, Physcia dubia, Xanthoria fallax, Phyaip, Usnea sp., Hypogymnia physodes, Vulpicida pinastri, Xanthoria parietina.

LeBlanc, F., G.Robitaille, and D.N. Rao. 1974. Biological response of lichens and bryophytes to environmental pollution in the Murdochville Copper Mine Area, Quebec. Jour. Hattori Bot. Lab. 38: 405-433.

LeBlanc, F., G. Robitaille, and D.N. Rao. 1976. Ecophysiological response of lichens transplants to air pollution in the Murdochville Gaspe Copper Mine Area, Quebec. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 40:27-40.

Lessica, P., B. McCune, S.V. Cooper, and W.S. Hong. 1991. Differences in lichen and bryophyte communities between old-growth and managed second-growth forests in the Swan Valley, Montana. Can. J. Bot. 69:1745-1755.

Liggon, C.A., and W.K. Lauenroth. 1980. Preliminary bibliography of the impacts of atmospheric sulphur deposition on ecosystems. Ann. Report RP 1635, for Electric Power Research Inst. Appendix III.

Little, P., and M.H. Martin. 1974. Biological monitoring of heavy metal pollution. Environmental Pollution 6:1-19.

Lodenius, M., and K. Laaksovirta. 1979. Mercury content of Hypogymnia physodes and pine needles affected by a chlor-alkali works at Kuusankoski, SE Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici 16: 7-10.

Mahon, D.C. 1982. Uptake and translocation of naturally-occurring radionuclides of the uranium series. Bull. of Env. Contamination & Toxicology 29: 697-703.

5 tables. [Study done in central British Columbia with high levels of natural radioactivity included analysis of Bryoria fremontii and Alectoria sarmentosa.]

Margot, J. 1973. Experimental study of the effects of sulphur dioxide on the soredia of Hypogymnia physodes. In: Ferry, B.W., et al. (eds.) Air Pollution and Lichens. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.

Marsh, J.E., and T.H. Nash III. 1979. Lichens in relation to the Four Corners power plant in NM. The Bryologist 82: 20-28.

Marti, J. 1983. Sensitivity of lichen phycobionts to air pollutants. Can. J. Bot. 61: 1647-1653.

Cultured phycobionts were exposed to aqueous solutions of either sulfite, nitrite, sulfate, or nitrate, to simulate acute pollutant stress for a short time. Impact was measured effectively with ¹⁴C incorporation rates. In many species there were clear correlations with data available on the sensitivity of the entire thallus, but in some species the phycobiont was either directly less sensitive or less tolerant than would be expected from ecological studies on the geographical distribution of the lichen. Nitrate and sulfate were nontoxic at pH 4 while distinct differences were noted in the sensitivity of the various phycobionts to sulfite and nitrite.

Maser, C., Z. Maser, J.W. Witt, and G. Hunt. 1986. The northern flying squirrel; a mycophagist in sourthwestern Oregon. Can. J. Zool. 64:2086-2089.

Maser, C., B.R. Mate, J.F. Franklin, and C.T.Dyrness. 1981. Natural History of Oregon Coast Mammals. USDA-Forest Service Pacific Northwest Expt. Sta. GTR PNW-133.

Maser. Z., C. Maser, and J. M Trappe. 1985. Food habits of the northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) in Oregon. Can. J. Zool. 63: 1085-1088.

McCune, B. 1988. Lichen Communities along O3 and SO2 gradients in Indianapolis. Bryologist 91(3): 223-228.

"Lichen community parameters ( spp. comp., spp. richness, total cover index, and IAP) were correlated with 3-yr mean annual SO2 levels (range 23-40 mg/m³; 0.6 < r² < 0.8) in and around Indianapolis IN. Weaker relationships were found between lichen communities and peak SO2 levels. In contrast, spatial variations in O3 peaks (range: 156-264 mg/m³ for yearly 1-hr highs averaged across three years) and 3-year 03 means (range 65-77 mg/m³) were not correlated with lichen communities."

McCune, B. 1993. Gradients in epiphyte biomass in three Pseudotsuga-Tsuga forests of different ages in western Oregon and Washington. Bryologist 96(3): 405-411.

McCune, B., and J. Antos. 1982. Epiphyte communities of the Swan Valley, Montana. Bryologist 85(1): 1-12.

"Epiphyte communities in low elevation conifer forests of the Swan Valley of western MT appear to respond to complex gradients of canopy structure and density, stand age, and moisture. Epiphytes read the environment differently than do vasc. plants. Stand age and moisture gradients that are reflected in vasc. veg. are differently expressed by epiphytes. Epiphytes tend to equate young stands with dry stands and old stands with wet stands in the Swan Valley, more so than vasc. plants. A strategy of investigation using both ordination and classification methods was used to clarify patterns in composition and environment." Nodobryoria abbreviata, Tuckermannopsis merrillii, Tuckermannopsis platyphylla were assoc. w/young stands; Hypogymnia imshaugii, Bryoria fremontii, Bryoria fremontii, Bryoria fuscescens, Letharia vulpina, Hypogymnia tubulosa, Esslingeriana idahoensis were assoc. w/drier stands, open irreg. canopy; Alectoria sarmentosa, Platismatia glauca, Parmeliopsis hyperopta were assoc. w/moist closed canopy; using ordination. Table 3. Interpolation of stand groups was interesting and could be useful for East-side interp (Deschutes).

McCune, B., J. Dey, J. Peck, K. Heiman, and S. Will-Wolf. 1994. Lichen Communities. In: T.E. Lewis and B. L. Conckling, eds. Forest Health Monitoring: Southeast Loblolly/Shortleaf Pine Demonstration Interim Report. EPA/620/R-94/006.

McCune, B., and L. Geiser. 1997. Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest. OSU Press, Corvallis, OR. In Press.

McCune, B., C.C. Derr, P. S. Muir, A. M Shirazi, S. C. Sillett, J. E. Peck, and W. J. Daly. 1996. Pendants for measuring lichen growth. Lichenologist 28(2):161-169.

McCune, B., et al. 1987. Foliar injury, tree growth, mortality, and lichen studies in Mammoth Cave NP. Final Report. NPS Contract CX-001-4-0058.

Moser, T.J., J.R. Swafford, and T.H. Nash III. 1983. Impact of Mt. St. Helens emissions on two lichen species of south-central Washington. Environmental & Exp. Bot. 23(4): 321-329.

Lichen specimens of Lobaria oregana and Peltigera aphthosa collected after St.Helens eruption July 1980 and Jan 1981 (Oct 1980, Mar 1981, June 1981 collections) from forested sites within 75 km of St. Helens exhibited significant reductions in internal K, P and gross photosynthetic capability in relation to control areas. In contrast, the same specimens had elevated internal levels of Al, Si, the two principal elements found in Mt St Helen's ash. No trends were found for S.

Muir, P.S. 1991. Fogwater Chemistry in a Wood-Burning Community, Western Oregon. J. Air Waste Manage. 41: 32-38.

"Fogwater chemistry in a wood-burning community was compared with the chemistry of fogwater collected in more remote and in more highly industrialized areas. Corvallis fogwater was not acidic (median pH 5.7) and was usually dominated by SO4^2- and NH4⁺. Concentrations were lower than southern CA urban areas, but higher than the more remote areas." Study suggests that there may be important non-natural and non-vehicular emissions sources of formaldehyde, formic and acetic acids to the Corvallis atm. While the seasonal and spatial distrib. of samples does not allow analysis of source contributions, it is likely that wood-burning (residential and by-products of wood industry)is an important contributor. Many areas affected by wood smoke also have frequent fog, and this research suggests that we need to understand more about the influence of wood smoke on organic composition of fogwater." See LeBlanc and Rao 1973 for more on particulates as condensation nuclei--they cite Changnon 1969.

Muir, P.S., and B. McCune. 1988. Lichens, tree growth, and foliar symptoms of air pollution: are the stories consistent? J. Env Qual. 17: 361-370.

["Lichen communities, tree growth, and foliar symptoms of Acer saccharum, Fraxinus spp., Liriodendron tulipifera, Quercus alba, and the Quercus rubra group were studied in relation to air pollutants in southern Indiana and Illinois. Both study areas receive regional pollutants, but only one is close to a large coal-fired utility, which results in a high dose of SO2 and its reaction products. Lichen communities differed significantly between the two areas; species richness and total cover were lowest in the near-utility area, and species compositional differences suggested that air quality was responsible."] Conclusions: 1. visible O3 injury was common and approx equal between near-utility and remote sites. --2. Periodic basal area increments and tree vigor were similar between near-utility and remote sites, and visible foliar symptoms did not generally differ between the areas. However, year-year variations in oak growth at the near ut. sites was neg. corr. w/SO2 emissions. 3. Lichen communities near the utility had a lower index of total cover, lower spp. richness and more poll. tolerant spp. compositions. NW spp: Physconia isidiigera, Punctelia subrudecta, Candelaria concolor, Physcia aipolia, Physcia stellaris, Xanthoria fallax.

NAPAP. 1990. Acidic Deposition: State of Science and Technology. Report 16: Changes in Forest Health and Productivity in the United States and Canada. The National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, Washington, DC.

Nash, T.H. III. 1971. Lichen sensitivity to hydrogen fluoride. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 98(2): 103-106.

"Lichens exposed to ambient F at 4 mg F/m3 accumulated F within their thalli. Both in the field and in the lab, whenever the level of F within the thallus exceeded 80ppm, chlorosis was observed. Subsequently all the pigments were degraded and the lichen thalli disintegrated. In the field, wherever chlorotic transplants were found, high levels of F on lime filter papers were also found, suggesting that ambient F was the cause of the lichen injury. Lichen ability to accumulate F is a function of relative humidity, which determines the moisture conditions of the thallus." Lichens used were not NWspp: Cladonia cristellata, C. polycarpoides and Parmelia plittii.

Nash, T.H. III. 1976a. Sensitivity of lichens to nitrogen dioxide fumigations. Bryologist 79(1): 103-106.

Nash, T.H. III. 1976b. Lichens as indicators of air pollution. Naturwissenschaft. 63:364-367.

Short literature review on SO2, HF, metals, oxidants: Lichens are more sensitive to SO2 under acidic conditions they extend into urban areas farthest on highly buffered substrates like asbestos and limestone; under high humidity or saturation lichens are more sensitive to SO2; HF sensitivity for lichens in general is approx. >30-80 mg/g/dry wt. lichen thalli; Zn sensitivity at 450 mg/g dry wt. and Cd at 320 mg/g dry wt., metal toxicity is by spp: some spp. can tolerate v. high levels of Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn; lichens have been shown to be fairly resistant to NO2, but further studies on oxidants are needed.

Nash, T. H. III. 1989. Metal tolerance in lichens. In: Heavy Metal Toerance in Plants: Evolutionary Aspects, ed. A.J. Shaw pp 119-131. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Nash, T. H. III (ed.). 1996. Lichen Biology. Cambridge University Press, Great Britain. 303 pp.

Nash, T. H. III, and V. Wirth (editors). 1988. Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 30: 231-267. J. Cramer, Berlin-Stuttgart, F.R.G.

Nash, T.H., III, and C. Gries. 1991. Lichens as indicators of air pollution. In: Hutzinger, O. (ed.) The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol.4 Part C. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

Nash, T.H. III, and L. Sigal. 1979. Gross photosynthetic response of lichens to short-term ozone fumigations. Bryologist 82: 280-285.

Nash, T.H. III, and L.Sigal. 1980. Sensitivity of lichens to air pollution with an emphasis on oxidant air pollutants. pp.112-151 In: Miller, P. R. (ed.), Proceedings of the Symposium on Effects of Air Pollution on Mediterranean and Temperate Forest Ecosystems: Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-43, USFS/USDA.

Gives a general discussion of the evidence that lichens are sensitive indicators of air pollution with oxidants, SO2, HF and trace elements. Uses field study in the San Gabriel NF as an example, see Sigal and Nash III 1980.

Nash, T.H., III, and L. Sigal. 1981. Ecological approaches to use of lichenized fungi as indicators of air pollution. In: D. T. Wicklow and G. C. Carroll (eds.), The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem. pp. 123-187

Nash, T.H. III, and M.R. Sommerfield. 1981. Elemental concentrations in lichens in the area of the Four Corners power plant, NM. Env. & Exptl. Bot. 21:153-162.

Nash, T.H. III, and V. Wirth. 1988. Correlating fumigation studies with field effects. Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Biblio. Lichenol. 30. J. Cramer, Berlin-Stuttgart.

Neel, M. 1988. Lichens and Air Pollution in the San Gabriel Wilderness, Angeles National Forest, California. Earth Resources Monograph 13, Forest Service/USDA Region 5.

Neitlich, P., and B. McCune. 1995. Structural factors influencing lichen biodiversity in two young managed stands, western Oregon, USA. Report prepared for the Eugene and Salem Districts of the USDI-Bureau of Land Management.

Nieboer, E., and D.H.S. Richardson. 1981. Lichens as Monitors of Atmospheric Deposition. pp. 112-53 In: S. J. Eisenreich (ed.). Atmospheric Pollutants in Natural Waters. Ann Arbor SciencePublishers, Ann Arbor.

Nieboer, E.A., D.H.S. Richardson, and F.D. Tomassini. 1978. Mineral Uptake and Release by Lichens: An Overview. Bryologist 81(2):226-246.

Review article: "Background and enhanced levels of elements in lichens are reviewed and the Fe/Ti content ratio is shown to reflect the presence of trapped particulates. The following uptake and release mechanisms are critically examined: extracellular ion exchange processes, extracellular electrolyte sorption, particulate trapping and subsequent solubilization, metal hydrolysis, intracellular uptake and release and the rewetting and 'resaturation respiration' phases. A brief survey of the nutritional requirements and nutritive value of lichens is also provided. Finally, it is concluded, after an examination of the mineral sources available to lichens and of mineral translocation and turnover rates in lichen thalli and mats, that lichen morphology and physiology favor their participation in mineral cycling."

Nieboer, E., D.H.S. Richardson, P. Lavoie, D. Padovan. 1979. The role of metal-ion binding in modifying the toxic effects of sulphur dioxide on the lichen Umbilicaria muhlenbergii. I. Potassium efflux studies. New Phytologist 82: 621-632.

Nieboer E.A., et al. 1976. The phytotoxicity of sulphur dioxide in relation to measurable responses in lichens. In: Mansfield, T.A. (ed.) Effect of Air Pollutants on Plants Cambridge Univ. Press. Cambridge. pp.61-85.

Nieboer E.A., et al. 1977. Ecological and physiochemical aspects of the accumulation of heavy metals and sulphur in lichens. In: Proc., Intern. Conf. on Heavy Metals in the Environment, Toronto, Canada. Oct. 1975. pp 331-352.

O'Hare, G.P. 1974. Lichens and bark acidification as indicators of air pollution in west central Scotland. J. Biogeogr. 1:135-146.

Oksanen, J., E. Laara, and K. Zobel. 1991. Statistical analysis of bioindicator value of epiphytic lichens. Lichenologist 23: 167-180.

Generalized linear modeling was applied in analyzing the bioindicator values of epiphytic lichens for air poll. around an industrial center in the Siberian mountains using data published previously by Zobel 1988. The occurrence of taxa on tree boles was systematically related to the distance from the poll. sources (pulp and paper mill and power plant) and the altitude above sea level. In the current analysis, quantitative values were assigned (linear and quadratic contrasts) to the altitude and distance levels. Most species had a significant and usually monotone response to distance. In the majority of these, the effect of distance varied between the altitude levels most often so the lichens were scarcer at low altitude and their increase was faster at high altitudes.

Pakarinen, P., A. Makinen, and R.J.K. Rinne. 1978. Heavy metals in Cladonia arbuscula and Cladonia mitis in eastern Fennoscandia. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 15: 281-286.

"Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn and ash content were determined in the lichen spp. Cladonia arbuscula and C. mitis from 23 sites throughout Finland and northern Norway. Pb, Fe, Zn, ash and Cu (ranked according to the steepness of the gradient) showed a significant decrease from south to north. this regional pattern is similar to that obtained previously with forest and bog mosses. Verticle fractionation of the lichen carpet revealed an increase in Fe, ash, Pb and Cu toward the basal part of the podetia, while Mn and Zn did not change significantly."

Pearson, L.C. 1980. Air pollution increases leakage of electrolytes from lichen cells. Bot. Soc. of America Misc. Series. Publ. 158: 87.

Pearson, L.C. 1985. Air pollution damage to cell membranes in lichens I. Development of a simple monitoring test. Atmospheric Environment 19: 209-212.

Pearson, L. 1993. Active monitoring. In: K. Stolte, D. Mangis, R. Doty, K. Tonnessen & L. S. Huckaby (eds.) Lichens as Bioindicators of Air Quality. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station General Technical Report RM-224, Fort Collins, Colorado. Pp. 89-95.

Pearson, L.C., and G.A. Rodgers. 1982. Air pollution damage to cell membranes in lichens III. Field experiments. Phyton. (Austria.) 22: 329-337.

Perkins, D.F., V. Jones, R.O.Millar, and P. Neep. 1976. Airborne fluoride and lichen growth. In: Institute of terrestrial ecology annual report, 1975. London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office: 63.

Perkins, D.F., and R.O. Millar. 1987a. Effects of airborne fluoride emissions in Wales, Parts 1 and 2. Environmental Poll. 47: 63-78 and 48: 185-196.

Parts 1 and 2 examine the effects of F emissions from a new aluminum works plant in Wales. Pt. 1: Corticolous Lichens on Broad leaved Trees: Pt. 2 Saxicolous Lichens Growing on Rocks and Walls. Three zones were established, using cover % and comparing damage. Corticolous NW spp: Evernia prunastri, Ramalina farinacea, Hypogymnia physodes, Hypogymnia tubulosa, melgla, Parmelia sulcata, Parmelia saxatilis, Peltigera canina, Physcia adscendens, Physcia aipolia, Physcia tenella, Punctelia subrudecta, Xanthoria parietina. Saxicolous NW spp: Neofuscelia loxodes, Parmelia saxatilis. Thallus concentrations of F and assoc. injury decreased with increasing distance form the works. Fruticose and sensitive foliose spp. lost 40-75% cover up to 4 k downwind, where F averaged 50-100mg/g, but < 40% losses were recorded in fruticose spp. up to 9k where F averaged 35-50 mg. Saxicolous spp. were damaged less than corticolous spp and crustose spp. of both groups were more tolerant, even growing into spaces where other morphological types had died off. Injury symptoms varied between spp. but some or all of the following. features were common: bleaching(chlorosis) due to damage of algal cells; red coloration; blackening of thallus(necrosis); weakening of attachment to substrate.

Perkins, D.F. , R.O. Millar, and P.Neep. 1980. Accumulation of airborne fluoride by lichens in the vicinity of an aluminum reduction plant. Environmental Pollution (Series A) 21: 155-168.

"Accumulation of F in lichens is described following the establishment of an aluminum reduction plant in Wales. Before emission of F pollutants, thalli of corticolous and saxicolous spp of Ramalina had mean conc. of 9 and 16 ppm of F, dry wt., respectively. After the plant opened in 1970, F conc. increased in lichens near the plant. Corticolous lichens tended to accumulate F more rapidly than saxicolous spp. with consequent accelerated damage and reduction in abundance."

Peterson, J, D. Schmoldt, D. Peterson, J. Eilers, R. Fisher, and R. Bachman. 1992. Guidelines for Evaluating Air pollution Impacts on Class I Wilderness Areas in the Pacific Northwest. USDA-Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station General Technical Report PNW-GTR-299.

Pike, L. H. 1978. The importance of epiphytic lichens in mineral cycling. Bryologist 81(2): 247-257.

Pisut, I. 1962. Bemerkungen zur Wirkung der Exhaltionsprodukte auf die Flechtenvegetation in der Umgebung von Rudnany (Nordostslowakei). Biologia 17(7): 481-494.

Puckett, K.J. 1988. Bryophytes and lichens as monitors of metal deposition. In: Nash, THIII (ed.), Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Biblio. Lichenol. 30. J. Cramer, Berlin-Stuttgart.

["The criteria for suitable biomonitors of metal deposition and to what extent bryophytes and lichens satisfy these criteria are addressed." The author also reviews factors determining choice of in situ monitors, use of transplanted material, techniques for source identification of the accumulated metals and substrate influences. "Lastly, spatial and temporal variation in metal deposition as the result of emissions from line, point, area and remote sources are summarized."].

Puckett, K.J., and E.J. Finegan. 1980. An analysis of the element content of lichens from the Northwest Territories, Canada. Can. J. Bot. 58: 2073-2089.

[Fourteen lichen species from 45 sites analyzed for 20 elements.] Univariate analysis of variance did not show any significant differences between the element content of Cladina arbuscula, Cladina rangiferina, Cladina stellaris or any differences between Cetraria cucullata and Cetraria nivalis on the basis of any single element. However, multiple discriminant analysis did show that the spp. mentioned could be distinguished when all the elements were compared simultaneously. The discrimination between Cladina spp. was based on relative efficacy of these lichens in the accumulation of iron, scandium. titanium, and vanadium.

Puckett, K.J., and S. Sang. 1983. Trace element mapping with lichens and bryophytes. In: Proc. of the Symposium Assessing Air Quality with Lichens and Bryophytes -Part 1.

Purvis, O.W., B.J. Coppins, D.L. Hawksworth, P.W. James, and D.M. Moore. 1992. The Lichen Flora of Great Britain and Ireland. Natural History Museum Publications. London. 710 pp.

Rao, D.N., and F. LeBlanc. 1966. Effects of sulphur dioxide on the lichen algae with special reference to chlorophyll. Bryologist 69:69-75.

"Thalli of NW spp: Xanthoria fallax, Xanthoria parietina were exposed to 5 ppm SO2 gas for 24 hrs at various humidities. Bleaching, permanent plasmolysis, and formation of sporadic brown spots on the chloroplasts were observed in the algal cells. Sulfurous acid and Mg²⁺ were detected in the extracts of the SO2 exposed thalli. Sulfate concentration increased in thalli exposed to SO2 in increased humidity. Light absorbtion was 667 mm, characteristic of phaeophytin, indicating the degradation of chlorophyll to phaeophytin under the influence of SO2."

Rhodes, F.M. 1988. Re-examination of Baseline Plots to Determine Effects of Air Quality on Lichens and Bryophytes in Olympic National Park. National Park Service Air Quality Division -- Special Publication. Northrop Environmental Sciences. SP-4450-88-13. November 1988.

Rhodes, F.M. 1996. A review of Lichen and Bryophyte Elemental Content Literature. Prepared for United States Forest Service, Mt. Baker/Snoqualmie National Forest. Mycena Consulting, Bellingham, WA.

Richardson, D.H.S. 1988. Understanding the pollution sensitivity of lichens. Bot. J. Linnean Soc. 96: 31-43.

Review that covers methods of study, mechanisms leading to accumulation, pitfalls of correlating lab studies (esp. fumigation) with field observations. General physical and physiologic signs of damage, pollutants are named, SO2 being the most harmful.

Richardson, D.H.S. 1992. Pollution monitoring with lichens. Naturalists' Handbooks 19. Richmond Publishing Co., Ltd. Slough, England. 76 pp.

Richardson, D.H.S., and E. Nieboer. 1980. Cellular Interactions in Symbiosis and Parasitism Surface binding and accumulation of metals in lichens. In: C. B. Cook, P. W Pappas & E. D. Rudolph (eds.). Cellular Interactions in Symbiosis and Parasitism . Pp 75-94. Ohio State University Press, Columbus.

Richardson, D.H.S., and E. Nieboer. 1983. Ecophysiological responses of lichens to sulfur dioxide. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 54: 331-351.

[New data suggest the following "... sequence in terms of SO2 sensitivity: N2 fixation > photosynthesis > respiration > pigment status > K⁺ efflux. Evidence is now accumulating that there is a seasonal variation of SO2 sensitivity in lichens that probably reflects variations in mineral status, chlorophyll content and metabolic activity of these plants."]

Richardson, D.H.S., and C.M. Young. 1977. Lichens and vertebrates. In: Lichen Ecology, M.R.D. Seaward, ed. Academic Press, London. Pp. 121-144.

Richardson, D.H.S., and E. Nieboer. 1983. The uptake of nickel ions by lichen thalli of the genera Umbilicaria and Peltigera. Lichenologist 15(1): 81-88.

Rochelle, J.A. 1980. Mature Forests, Litterfall and Patterns of Forage Quality as Factors in the Nutrition of Black-tailed Deer on Northwestern Vancouver Island. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of British Columbia.

Rope, S.K., and L.C. Pearson. 1990. Lichens as air pollution biomonitors in a semiarid environment in Idaho. Bryologist 93:50-61.

Rosentreter, R. 1990. Indicator value of lichen cover on desert shrubs. Proceedings -- Symposium on Cheatgrass invasion, Shrub Die-off, and Other Aspects of Shrub Biology and Mgt. General Technical Report INT-276. Ogden UT: USDA/USFS, Intermountain Research Sta. 351p.

Ecological factors affect the amount of lichen cover on desert shrubs. Artemisia tridentata varieties are discussed: A.wyomingensis, shallow soils, low biomass productivity, highest lichen cover (Xanthoria fallax); A. tridentata, or basin sagebrush, more X. fallax cover on dead shrubs, with moderate lichen cover; Mountain, or vaseyana, grows at the higher elevations, has the least stable bark and the least lichen cover. A list of epiphytic spp. that grow on the three varieties is included.

Rosentreter, R. 1995. Lichen diversity in managed forests of the Pacific Northwest, USA. Mitt. Eidggenöss. Forsch. anst. Wald Schnee Landsch. 70(1): 103-124.

Rosentreter, R., and V. Ahmadjian. 1977. Effect of ozone on the lichen Cladonia arbuscula and the Trebouxia phycobiont of Cladonia stellaris. Bryologist 80: 600-605.

"The chlorophyll content of Cladina arbuscula thalli and of a Trebouxia phycobiont isolated from Cladina stellaris increased after the organisms were exposed for one week to an ozone concentration of 0.1 ppm. Concentrations of ozone above 0.1 ppm did not significantly affect the chlorophyll content relative to those of the controls. There were no discernable morphological effects that could be attributed to ozone exposure." This was done with levels of O3 that would be found in urban centers(some previous studies used abnormally high levels of ozone). Other previous studies' problems are discussed: crude ozoners w/high current densities, moist air, unreliable methods of analysis and organic materials that are readily attacked by ozone. O3 possibly affects other processes than photosynthesis and biological processes affected may be species specific. Ozone damage may be seasonal, as 03 conc. vary seasonally.

Ross, L.J., and T.H. Nash III. Effect of ozone on gross photosynthesis of lichens. Environ. Exp. Bot. 23(1): 71-77.

"Pseudoparmelia caperata and Ramalina menziesii were subjected to short- and long-term fumigations. P. caperata was fumigated with 200, 490, 980 mg/m³ of ozone for 12 hr. A significant decline in the rate of ¹⁴CO2 assimilation was seen at all conc. R. menzeiesii was exposed to 200, 490, 980, and 1567 mg/m3 of ozone for 12 hr with no significant reduction in the rate of photosynthesis. Both spp. were also fumigated with 200 mg/m³ of ozone for 6 hr on 5 consecutive days. P. caperata results demonstrated a significant reduction of photosynthesis, while R. menzeiesii did not. Field analyses indicated that P.caperata is undergoing stress in the Santa Monica Mtns of southern CA, where ozone has been recorded at 200 mg/m3 50-100 days per year. The results of these lab studies infer that ozone is contributing to the low lichen cover in the field, but the absence of R. menzeiesii appears to be independent of ozone pollution. Sensitive spp: Parmelia sulcata, P.caperata. Insensitive spp: R. menzeiesii , Cladina rangiferina , C. arbuscula, Hypogymnia enteromorpha.

Rühling, Å. 1994. Atmospheric heavy metal deposition in Europe - estimation based on moss analysis. Nord 1994:9. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen.

Ruoss, E., and C. Vonarburg. 1995. Lichen diversity and ozone impact in rural areas of central Switzerland. Cryptogamic Botany 5: 252-263.

Ryan, B.D. 1990a. Lichens and air quality in wilderness areas in California: A series of baseline studies. Six Reports submitted to USDA-USFS, Region 5. San Francisco. Unpublished.

Ryan, B.D. 1990b. Lichens and air quality in the Marble Mountain Wilderness, California: A baseline study. Report to USDA-USFS, Region 5. San Francisco.

Ryan, B.D., T.H. Nash III, and W. Davis. 1990. Lichens and air quality in the Mt. Baldy Wilderness Area. ASU, Tempe. Report to USDA/USFS Southwest Region.

Ryan, B., and F. Rhodes. Appendix B: Lichens, Bryophytes, and Air Quality in Pacific Northwest Wilderness Areas. In: Peterson, Janice, Daniel Schmoldt, David Peterson, Joseph Eilers, Richard Fisher, Robert Bachman. Guidelines for Evaluating Air Pollution Impacts on Class 1 Wilderness Areas in the Pacific Northwest. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-299. USDA/USFS. May 1992.

Rychert, R.C. and J. Skujins. 1974. Nitrogen fixation by blue-green algae-lichen crusts in the Great Basin Desert. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 38: 768-71.

Saeki, M., et al. 1977. Metal burden of urban lichens. Environmental Research 13: 256-266.

St. Clair, L. 1989a. Establishment of a Lichen Biomonitoring Program for the Salmon National Forest: Interim Report. Submitted to: Gary Jackson, Salmon NF, Salmon ID. 4 pages.

In 1988 102 species in 46 genera were collected as baseline data for the Salmon NF project, "Lichen Biomonitoring Program and Air Quality Baseline". Elemental analysis was conducted on Letharia columbiana, Umbilicaria vellea, Letharia vulpina for Cu, Pb, and S.

St. Clair, L. 1989b. Report concerning establishment of a lichen biomonitoring program for the Jarbridge Wilderness Area, Humboldt NF, NV. Submitted to J. Caywood, USFS Jarbridge RD.

115 lichens in 44 genera were collected and identified as part of a baseline study for the Jarbidge Wilderness Area in Humboldt NF, NV.

St. Clair, L. L., and C. C. Newberry. 1995. Establisment of a lichen biomonitorng program and baseline in the Salmon National Forest including the eastern portion of the Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness Area, Idaho and Montana. Report submitted to G. Jackson, Salmon-Challis National Forest, Idaho, USDA-Forest Service.

Sanz, M.J., C. Gries, and T.H. Nash III. 1992. Dose-response relationships for SO2 fumigations in the lichens Evernia prunastri (L.) Ach. and Ramalina fraxinea (L.) Ach. New Phytol. 122: 313-319.

SO2 fumigation of the lichens Evernia prunastri and Ramalina fraxinea whose thallus water content was held at 100-120% throughout each experiment, resulted in changes in net ps, dark resp., and chlorophyll content in relation to both conentration and duration of exposure. Net ps was the most sensitive response variable. Significant reduction in chloropyll content was found when no recovery in net ps occurred after 2 weeks. A reduction in dark resp. was only found at high SO2 conc. E. prunastri was affected by lower conc. and shorter exposure times than R. fraxinea.

Schutte, J.A . 1977. Chromium in two corticolous lichens from Ohio and West Virginia. Bryologist 80: 279-283.

Seaward, M.R.D. 1973. Lichen ecology of the Scunthorpe Heathlands I. Mineral accumulation. Lichenologist 5: 423-433. l

Seaward, M.R.D. 1980. the use and abuse of heavy metal bioassays of lichens for environmental monitoring. pp. 375-384 Spaleny, J. (ed.), In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference bioindicatores Deteriorisations Regionis; Liblice, Czeckoslovakia. Praha: Academia.

Seaward, M.R.D. 1982. Lichen ecology and changing urban environments. In: R. Bornkamm, J. Almrdse, Urban Ecology The Second European Ecological Symposium. Blackwell Sceintific Publications, Boston. pp.115-172

Seaward, M.R.D. 1987. Effects of quantitative and qualitative changes in air pollution on the ecological and geographical performance of lichens. In: Hutchinson, T. C. and K. M. Meema (eds.), Effects of Atmoshperic Pollutants on Forests, Wetlands and Agricultural Ecosystems. 133: NATO ASI Series, Vol. G16. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidlberg.

[Review of changes in distributions as a result of air pollution and acid rain. "More recently, the differing effects on lichens of both wet and dry acidic deposition have been detected in the field, but as yet little experimental work has been carried out to substantiate these observations. However, a comprehensive lichen mapping programme in the British Isles has shown that some species have extended their ecological and geographical range by exploiting acidified substrata."]

Seaward, M.R.D. 1989. Lichens as pollution monitors: adapting to modern problems. In: Ozturk, M.A. (ed.), Plants and Pollutants in Developed and Developing Countries. Ege University, Bornova, Turkey.

Shirazi, A. M., P. S. Muir, and B. McCune. 1996. Environmental factors influencing the distribution of the lichens Lobaria oregana and L. pulmonaria. Bryologist 99 (1): 12-18.

Showman, R.E. 1972. Residual effects of sulfur dioxide on the net photosynthesis andrespiratory rates of lichen thalli and cultured lichen symbionts. Bryologist 75: 335-341.

Showman, R.E. 1975. Lichens as indicators of air quality around a coal-fired power generating plant. Bryologist 78: 1-16.

Showman, R.E. 1988. Mapping air quality with lichens, the North American experience. In: Nash, T.H., III, (ed.) Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 30. J. Cramer, Berlin-Stuttgart.

Sigal, L.L. 1988. The relationship of lichen and bryophyte research to regulatory decisions in the United States. In: Nash III, T.H. (ed.) Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Biblio. Lichenol. 30. J. Cramer, Berlin-Stuttgart.

Sigal, L.L., and W.J. Johnston. 1986. Effects of acidic rain and ozone on nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis in the lichen Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 26: 59-64.

"Lobaria pulmonaria was subjected to ozone fumigations at 118, 235, 353 mg/m³ and simulated acid rain at pH 2.6, 4.2, 5.6 for 5 days during a 10-day period. Acid rain at pH 2.6 caused significant reductions in N fixation (100%) and 90% reduction in photosynth., thallus bleaching was apparent. There were not significant changes between pH 5.6 and 4.2 in N fixation or photosynthesis and thalli color was unchanged. O3 had no significant effects on L. pulmonaria, but there was a trend toward reduced N fixation with increasing O3 conc. There was no significant O3 -acid rain interaction."

Sigal, L.L., and T.H. Nash III. 1983. Lichen communities on conifers in southern California: an ecological survey relative to oxidant air pollution. Ecology 64:1343-1354.

Sigal, L.L., and O.C. Taylor. 1979. Preliminary studies of the gross photosynthetic response of lichens to peroxyacetylnitrite fumigations. Bryologist 82: 564-575.

[Studies done on specimens of Collema nigrescens, Hypogymnia enteromorpha, Parmelia sulcata and Peltigera rufescens from the mountains near Los Angeles. "With the exception of C. nigrescens, laboratory results are generally consistent with unpublished observations of distribution and vitality of the species in the field."]

Sillet, S. C. 1994. Growth rates of two epiphytic cyanolichen species at the edge and in the interior of a 700 year-old douglas fir forest in the western Cascades of Oregon. Bryologist 97(3): 321-324.

Skorepa, A.C., and D.H. Vitt. October 1976. A Quantitative Study of Epiphytic Lichen Vegetation in Relation to SO2 Pollution in Western Alberta. Information Report NOR-X-161. Edmonton, Alberta:Northern Forest Research Centre. 26 pp..

Skye, E. 1979. Lichens and air pollution. Acta Phytogeographica Suecica 52. Uppsala.

Slack, N.G. 1988. The ecological importance of lichens and bryophytes. In: Nash, THIII (ed.), Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Bibliotheca Lichenologica 30. J. Cramer, Berlin-Stuttgart.

[Review of the ecological roles of lichens and bryophytes including primary production, nitrogen fixation, nutrient cycling, food chain relationships, and colonization. Author includes discussion of the impact of air pollution on these ecosystem functions.].

Smith, C., et al. 1993. Lichens as biomonitors of air quality. In: Huckaby, LS, et al. (eds.) Lichens as Biomonitors of Air Quality. Proc. of a workshop sponsored by the NPS and USDA-FS. Draft. USDA/USFS Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Exp. Sta. GTR RM-224.

Søchting, U. 1990. Reindeer lichens injured in Denmark. Bull. British Lichen Society 67:1-4.

Søchting, U. 1995. Lichens as monitors of nitrogen deposition. Cryptogamic Botany 5: 264-269.

Steinnes, E., and H. Krog. 1977. Mercury, arsenic and Selenium fallout from an industrial complex studied by means of lichen transplants. Oikos 23: 160-164.

Transplants of Hypogymnia physodes were compared with naturally occurring samples. Transplants proved to be an efficient means of studying Hg fall out from local industries. Lower Hg in the naturally occurring samples may be due to SO2 damage.

Stolte, K., D. Mangis, R. Doty and K. Tonnessen (editors). 1993. Lichens as Bioindicators of Air Quality. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-224. Fort Collins, Colorado. USDA-Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 131 pp.

Taylor, R.J. 1978. Industrial impact in northwestern Whatcom Co., Washington. Water, Air and Soil Poll. 10: 199-213.

Taylor, R.J., and M.A. Bell. 1983. Effects of SO2 on the lichen flora in an industrial area: Northwest Whatcom County, Washington. Northwest Science 57: 157-166.

Tomassini, F.D. 1976. The measurement of photosynthetic 14C fixation rates and potassium efflux to assess the sensitivity of lichens to sulfur dioxide and the adaptation of X-ray f fluorescence to determine the elemental content of lichens. M.Sc. Thesis, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ont. Canada.

Tomassini, F.D., K.J. Puckett, E.Nieboer, D.H.S. Richardson, and B.Grace. 1976. Determination of copper, iron, nickel, and sulphur by X-ray fluorescence in lichens from the Mackenzie Valley, Northwest Territories, and the Sudbury District, Ontario. Can. J. Bot. 54: 1591-1603.

Trass, H. 1968. An index for the utilization of lichen groups to determine air pollution. Eesti Loodus 11:628.

Trass, H. 1973. "Lichen Sensitivity to the Air Pollution and Index of Poleotolerance." (I.P.) Folia Cryptogramica Estonia, Tartu, 3: 19-22.

Turk, R., V. Wirth, and O.L. Lange. 1974. CO2-Gaswechsel-Untersuchungen zur SO2-Resistenz von Flechten. Oecologia 15: 33-64.

"Carbon dioxide exchange measurements for determination of sulfur dioxide resistance of lichens. SO2 resistance of 12 lichen spp w/ different growth forms, taken from different sites was investigated. Thalli were either exposed to SO2 gas, or treated w/ Na2S2O5 solutions. CO2 exchange was measured with an infrared gas analyzer before and after SO2 exposure. The influence of SO2 on net photosynth and dark resp. in the most sensitive spp. was detectable after exposure to 0.5 miligram/m3 (185 ppb)for 14 hr, fully hydrated. Lobaria pulmonaria suffered irreversible damage. The most resistant sp. survived tx of 4 mg/m3 (1480 ppb) for 14 hr. Xanthoria parietina was the most resistant. in order of resistance: X. parietina , Parmelia scortea, Parmelia acetabulum, Hypogymnia physodes, Parmelia saxatilis, Platismatia glauca, Lobaria pulmonaria, Parmelia stenophylla, Evernia prunastri --fructicose spp. appeared to be most sensitive. SO2 resistance can vary according to growing site, through morphological and anatomical differeces. Sensitivity is closely dependent on moisture status -- dry thalli survive high SO2 conc. Sensitvity to S in solution was not the same sequence as the gas. Damage to S solution was closely dependent on pH of the medium--low pH causes more damage. Lichen life form and surface characteristics determine SO2 resistance. Total resistance also depends on developmental state of the lichen.

Tyler, G. 1989. Uptake, retention and toxicity of heavy metals in lichens. A brief review. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 47: 321-333.

[A general review with many references.] " Literature on metals, particularly heavy metals, in lichens is reviewed including mechanisms of metal uptake, retention, toxicity and tolerance. Interspecies differences in sensitivity are discussed as well as the development and nature of extreme tolerance encountered in certain taxa." NW spp: Peltigera canina, Pelfur, Hypogymnia physodes, Parmelia squarrosa, Parmelia sulcata, Cladina rangiferina, Cladonia chlorophaea, Cladonia carneola, Cladonia squamosa, Cladina arbuscula.

USDA-Forest Service and USDI-Burau of Land Management. 1994a. Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement on Management of Habitat for Late-Successional and Old-Growth Forest Related Species with the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. Appendix J2. Results of additional species analysis. February, 1994. Portland, Oregon.

USDA-Forest Service and USDI-Burau of Land Management. 1994b. Record of Decision for amendments to USFS and BLM Planning Documents within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl and Standards and Guidelines for Management of Habitat for Late-Successional and Old-Growth Forest Related Species within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl. April 1994. Portland, Oregon.

Van Dobben, H.F. 1992. Effects of atmospheric acidification alkalinization and nitrogen enrichment on epiphytic lichens in The Netherlands. In: Karnfelt, I. (ed.) The Second International Lichenological Symposium IAL2, Suppl. to Abstracts. University of Lund, Sweeden.

Van Haluwyn, C., and M. Lerond 1986. Lichensociologie et qualite de l'aire: protocole operatoire et limites. Crytogamie Bryologie et Lichenologie 9(4): 313-336.

Vestergaard, N.K., U. Stephansen, L. Rasmussen, and K. Pilegaard. 1986.. Airborne heavy metal pollution in the environment of a Danish steel plant. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 27: 363-377.

Vick, C.M., and R. Bevan. 1976. Lichens and tar spot fungus (Rhytisma acerinum) as indicators of sulfur dioxide pollution on Mereyside. Environmental Poll. 11: 203-216.

"Lichens and tar spot fungus (Rhytisma acerinum) on sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) were used as indicators of pollution in order to map SO2 concentrations in the new Metropolitan county of Merseyside, in England. The lichen scale of Gilbert (1970) was adapted and a mapping rechnique based on the presence/absence of a few indicator species devised. The map of the inner limit of tar spot fungus is provisional: work is in progress on the calibration of this species as an indicator of SO2. The lichen and tar spot map fulfills a requirement for environmental planning in the new county."

Villeneuve, J-P, E. Fogelquist, and C. Cattini. 1987. Lichens as bioindicators for atmospheric pollution by chlorinated hydrocarbons. International Lab. of Marine Radioactivity. IAEA, Oceanographic Museum, Monaco.

"Lichen samples from southern France were analyzed for chlorinated hydrocarbons. The concentration were in the same range as in industrial areas in Italy and Norway but higher than results reported from remote areas in Sweeden and especially in the Antarctic. PCB concentrations were also compared with atmospheric concentrations in the same area. A concentration factor of 2 x 10⁵ (? 2.105) for PCB between lichen and tam is of the same order as that calculated for Antarctic samples. Lichens are suggested as suitable bioindicators for the study of atmospheric pollution by chlorinated hydrocarbons."

Villeneuve, J.-P., and E. Hom. Atmospheric background of chlorinated hydrocarbons studied in Swedish lichens. Chemosphere 13(10):1133-1138.

von Arb, C., et al. 1990. Lichen physiology and air pollution. II: Statistical analysis of the correlation between SO2, NO2, NO and O3, and chlorophyll content, net photosynthesis, sulfate uptake and protein synthesis of Parmelia sulcata Taylor. New Phytologist 115: 431-437.

[Study conducted in Switzerland. "Most of the mean values of net photosynthesis differed less than the average standard deviation. The rates of sulfate uptake and protein synthesis were lowest and chlorophyll content was highest at the most polluted sites." Authors also conclude that "... the chlorophyll content of Parmelia sulcata ... might represent the overall status of the metabolism of this species fairly well."]Samples of the lichen P. sulcata were collected in the vicinity of 17 air pollution monitoring stations in the northern part of Switzerland and its bordering area. Net photosynthesis, dark respiration, and the content of [³⁵S]-sulfate and [³⁵S]-protein after cultivation with ³⁵SO4^2-, as well as the chlorophyll and protein contents were measured. Mean values of dark resp. and protein content were not significantly different in the plant material from the various locations. Most of the mean values of net ps differed less than the average std. The rates of sulfate uptake and protein synthesis were lowest and chlorophyll content was highest at the most polluted sites. The values differed by a factor of 3.5 - 7 between the various locations. Multiple regression analysis gave a linear correlation between the three physiological parameters [³⁵S]-sulfate and [³⁵S]-protein and chlorophyll content and a combination of the annual mean concentrations of the air pollutants NO, NO2, SO2, and O3. The highest multiple correlation coefficient (r²) was estimated for chlorophyll (0.84). Its linear correlation coefficient (r) with NO2 alone was 0.91, and with SO2 alone 0.85.

Wetmore, C.M. 1967. Lichens of the Black Hills of SD and WY. Publ. of the Museum, MI State University, East Lansing.

Wetmore, C.M. 1983. Lichens of the Air Quality Class1 National Parks. National Park Services Contract CX 0001-2-0034. USA:NPS. 158 pages.

Wetmore, C.M. 1985a. Lichens and air quality in Isle Royal NP: Final Report. NPS Contract CX 0001-2-0034.

Wetmore, C.M. 1985b. Lichens and air quality in Sequoia NP. Final Report, NPS Contract CX 0001-2-0034.

Wetmore, C.M. 1987a. Lichens and Air Quality in Boundary Waters Canoe Area of the Superior NF: Final Report, Supported by the National Forest Service, Contract 43-63A9-5-867.

Wetmore, C.M. 1987b. Mapping Elemental Concentrations in Great Smoky Mountains NP with Lichens. NPS Contract CX-0001-1-0112. Northrup Environmental Sciences.

Wetmore, C.M. 1988. Lichen Floristics and Air Quality. In: Nash, THIII (ed.) Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Biblio. Lichenol. 30. J. Cramer in der Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlg., Berlin-Stuttgart.

Will-Wolf, S. 1980a. Effects of a "clean" coal-fired power generating station on four common Wisconsin l ichen species. Bryologist 83(3): 296-300.

Will-Wolf, S. 1980b. Structure of corticolous lichen communities before and after exposure to emissions from a "clean" coal-fired generating station. Bryologist 83: 281-295.

Will-Wolf, S. 1988. Quantitative approaches to air quality studies. In: Nash, T.H. III (ed.) Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Biblio. Lichenol. 30. J. Cramer in der Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlg., Berlin-Stuttgart.

Winner, W.E. 1988. Responses of bryophytes to air pollution. In: Nash, T.H. III (ed.) Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Biblio. Lichenol. 30. J. Cramer in der Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlg., Berlin-Stuttgart.

Winner, W.E., C.J. Atkinson, and T.H. Nash. 1988. Comparisons of SO2 absorption capacities of mosses, lichens, and vascularplants in diverse habitats. In: Nash, T.H. III (ed.) Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Biblio. Lichenol. 30. J. Cramer in der Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlg., Berlin-Stuttgart.

SO2 absorption from a presumed concentration of 0.035 ppm was calculated on an annual basis for mosses and vascular plants growing n a wide range of habitats in which growing season ppt, and evapotranspiration differed. These habitats ranged from the tropics with long growing season and high precipitation, to deserts where growing seasons are short due to lack of ppt and high evapotransp. Analysis indicates that mosses in all habitats are potentially 100 to 1000 times stronger SO2-sinks on a dry weight basis than are vascular plants. Similarly Cladina rangiferina is estimated to absorb well over 100 times as much SO2 as arctic vascular plants. Adjustments for variability in moss or lichen water contents reduce absorption estimates, but estimates still exceed vascular plant absorption estimates by 100 times.

Wirth, V. 1988. Phytosocial approaches to air pollution monitoring with lichens. In: Nash, THIII (ed.) Lichens, Bryophytes and Air Quality. Biblio. Lichenol. 30. J. Cramer in der Gebr. Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlg., Berlin-Stuttgart.

"As composition and coverage in crytogamic communities are influenced by air pollution, especially acidic air poll., the occurrence of different lichen comm. can be correlated with different levels of air poll."

Wolseley, P.A., and P.W. James. 1992. Acidification and the Lobarion: a case for biological monitoring. Nature Conservancy Council Newsletter. In: Wolselely and James. 1991. The Effects of Acidification on Lichens 1986-1990. (CSD Report 1247). Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough, UK.

Summary of results of a 1990 survey across Britian to determine the effects of acidification on the Lobarion community. Patterns of change in the lichen communities over a 5-year period were interpreted and pollution data reinterpreted with the change in the climatic conditions (drought conditions -- low winter rainfall.) taken into account. "It is apparent that lichens may respond to short episodic pollution events within a local area that may be undetected by conventional analysis." "The physiological effects of acidification on the Lobarion comm. are reflected in the field by declining bark pH, which is a critical factor in the establishment of acidophilous spp. of the Parmelion laevigatae which may, with continuing acidification, replace the Lobarion."