Index of Species Information
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Odocoileus virginianus
Introductory
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Odocoileus virginianus
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Snyder, S. A. 1991. Odocoileus virginianus. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer).
Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [].
ABBREVIATION :
ODVI
COMMON NAMES :
white-tailed deer
whitetail
deer
Columbian white-tailed deer
Key deer
Coues deer
Texas white-tailed deer
sandhill deer
common deer
jumping deer
flag-tailed deer
bannertail
long-tailed deer
Virginia white-tailed deer
Virginia deer
TAXONOMY :
There are 38 subspecies of white-tailed deer in North, Central, and
South America. Sixteen of these are found in the United States and
Canada. Subspecies are distinguished by geographic location, body size,
coloration, antler growth, and physiological, biochemical, and
behavioral differences [2,21,24]. The North American subspecies
are listed below:
Odocoileus virginianus ssp. borealis
O. virginianus ssp. clavium (Key deer)
O. virginianus ssp. couesi
O. virginianus ssp. dakotensis
O. virginianus ssp. hiltonensis (Hilton Head white-tailed deer)
O. virginianus ssp. leucurus (Columbian white-tailed deer)
O. virginianus ssp. macrourus
O. virginianus ssp. mcilhennyi
O. virginianus ssp. nigribarbis (Blackbeard Island white-tailed deer)
O. virginianus ssp. ochrourus
O. virginianus ssp. osceola
O. virginianus ssp. seminolus
O. virginianus ssp. taurinsulae (Bulls Island white-tailed deer)
O. virginianus ssp. texanus
O. virginianus ssp. venatorius (Hunting Island white-tailed deer)
O. virginianus ssp. virginianus
ORDER :
Artiodactyla
CLASS :
Mammal
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
See OTHER STATUS
OTHER STATUS :
Odocoileus virginianus leucurus and O. v. clavium are federally listed
as endangered. Odocoileus virginianus hiltonensis, nigribarbis,
taurinsulae, and venatoria are federally listed as Category 2 subspecies
[61].
O. v. leucurus is endangered in Washington and Oregon, and O. v. clavium
is endangered in Florida [55,60,62].
WILDLIFE DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Odocoileus virginianus
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
The white-tailed deer (whitetail) ranges from coast to coast across
North America. However, it is not found along the southwestern coast of
the United States or the coast of British Columbia. The whitetail's
range also extends from central Canada south through South America, with
a small portion possibly extending north into the southern Northwest
Territories. The whitetail has been introduced in the Virgin Islands
and other parts of the Caribbean. The North American subspecies and
their distributions are listed below [2,24]:
ssp. borealis - from central Ontario and Quebec south to southern
Illinois, and from central Minnesota to the East Coast
ssp. clavium - Florida Keys
ssp. couesi - central Arizona south through Mexico and southwestern
New Mexico
ssp. dakotensis - southern Northwest Territories west into central
Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and south through Alberta,
the Dakotas, eastern Montana, central Wyoming,
northern Colorado, and western Minnesota
ssp. hiltonensis - Hilton Head Island, South Carolina
ssp. leucurus - southwestern Washington and the western quarter of
Oregon
ssp. macrourus - Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, northern Louisiana, eastern
Texas, Kansas, and Nebraska, and southeastern South
Dakota
ssp. mcilhennyi - southeastern Texas and southern Louisiana
ssp. nigribarbis - Blackbeard Island, Georgia
ssp. ochrourus - British Columbia to western Alberta, south through
western Montana, Idaho, eastern Washington and Oregon,
western Wyoming, northern Utah, and possibly a fringe
of the border between northern California and Nevada
ssp. osceola - midwestern Florida, north into southern Alabama and
Mississippi
ssp. seminolus - Florida
ssp. taurinsulae - Bulls Island, South Carolina
ssp. texanus - Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, western New Mexico
and Colorado, and southeastern Wyoming
ssp. venatorius - Hunting Island, South Carolina
ssp. virginianus - Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennesee, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, and
Alabama
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES10 White-red-jack pine
FRES11 Spruce-fir
FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress
FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES41 Wet grasslands
STATES :
| AK |
AZ |
AR |
CO |
CT |
DE |
FL |
GA |
ID |
| IL |
IN |
IA |
KS |
KY |
LA |
ME |
MD |
MA |
| MI |
MN |
MS |
MO |
MT |
NE |
NH |
NJ |
NM |
| NY |
NC |
ND |
OH |
OK |
OR |
PA |
RI |
SC |
| SD |
TN |
TX |
VT |
VA |
WA |
WV |
WI |
WY |
| VI |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| AB |
BC |
MB |
NB |
NF |
NT |
NS |
ON |
PE |
PQ |
| SK |
YK |
|
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BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
K004 Fir - hemlock forest
K005 Mixed conifer forest
K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
K015 Western spruce - fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K019 Arizona pine forest
K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
K021 Southwestern spruce - fir forest
K022 Great Basin pine forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K025 Alder - ash forest
K026 Oregon oakwoods
K027 Mesquite bosque
K028 Mosaic of K002 and K026
K031 Oak - juniper woodland
K037 Mountain-mahogany - oak scrub
K040 Saltbush - greasewood
K042 Creosotebush - bursage
K043 Paloverde - cactus shrub
K044 Creosotebush - tarbush
K045 Ceniza shrub
K050 Fescue - wheatgrass
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K055 Sagebrush steppe
K056 Wheatgrass - needlegrass shrubsteppe
K059 Trans-Pecos shrub savanna
K060 Mesquite savanna
K061 Mesquite - acacia savanna
K062 Mesquite - live oak savanna
K063 Foothills prairie
K064 Grama - needlegrass - wheatgrass
K065 Grama - buffalograss
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K068 Wheatgrass - grama - buffalograss
K069 Bluestem - grama prairie
K070 Sandsage - bluestem prairie
K071 Shinnery
K073 Northern cordgrass prairie
K074 Bluestem prairie
K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie
K076 Blackland prairie
K077 Bluestem - sacahuista prairie
K078 Southern cordgrass prairie
K079 Palmetto prairie
K080 Marl - Everglades
K081 Oak savanna
K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100
K083 Cedar glades
K084 Cross Timbers
K085 Mesquite - buffalograss
K086 Juniper - oak savanna
K087 Mesquite - oak savanna
K088 Fayette prairie
K089 Black Belt
K090 Live oak - sea oats
K091 Cypress savanna
K092 Everglades
K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
K094 Conifer bog
K095 Great Lakes pine forest
K096 Northeastern spruce - fir forest
K097 Southeastern spruce - fir forest
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K101 Elm - ash forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalacian oak forest
K105 Mangrove
K106 Northern hardwoods
K107 Northern hardwoods - fir forest
K108 Northern hardwoods - spruce forest
K109 Transition between K104 and K106
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
K114 Pocosin
K115 Sand pine scrub
K116 Subtropical pine forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
1 Jack pine
5 Balsam fir
12 Black spruce
13 Black spruce - tamarack
14 Northern pin oak
15 Red pine
16 Aspen
17 Pin cherry
18 Paper birch
19 Gray birch - red maple
20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
21 Eastern white pine
22 White pine - hemlock
23 Eastern hemlock
24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
26 Sugar maple - basswood
27 Sugar maple
28 Black cherry - maple
30 Red spruce - yellow birch
31 Red spruce - sugar maple - beech
32 Red spruce
33 Red spruce - balsam fir
34 Red spruce - Fraser fir
35 Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
37 Northern white cedar
39 Black ash - American elm - red maple
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
42 Bur oak
43 Bear oak
44 Chestnut oak
45 Pitch pine
46 Eastern redcedar
50 Black locust
51 White pine - chestnut oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
55 Northern red oak
57 Yellow poplar
58 Yellow poplar - eastern hemlock
59 Yellow poplar - white oak - northern red oak
60 Beech - sugar maple
61 River birch - sycamore
62 Silver maple - American elm
63 Cottonwood
64 Sassafras - persimmon
65 Pin oak - sweet gum
66 Ashe juniper - redberry (Pinchot) juniper
67 Mohrs ("shin") oak
68 Mesquite
69 Sand pine
70 Longleaf pine
71 Longleaf pine - scrub oak
72 Southern scrub oak
73 Southern redcedar
74 Cabbage palmetto
75 Shortleaf pine
76 Shortleaf pine - oak
78 Virginia pine - oak
79 Virginia pine
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
84 Slash pine
85 Slash pine - hardwood
87 Sweet gum - yellow poplar
88 Willow oak - water oak - diamondleaf oak
89 Live oak
91 Swamp chestnut oak - cherrybark oak
92 Sweetgum - willow oak
93 Sugarberry - American elm - green ash
94 Sycamore - sweetgum - American elm
95 Black willow
97 Atlantic white-cedar
98 Pond pine
104 Sweetbay - swamp tupelo - redbay
105 Tropical hardwoods
106 Mangrove
107 White spruce
108 Red maple
109 Hawthorn
110 Black oak
111 South Florida slash pine
201 White spruce
202 White spruce - paper birch
203 Balsam poplar
204 Black spruce
205 Mountain hemlock
206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
210 Interior Douglas-fir
211 White fir
212 Western larch
213 Grand fir
215 Western white pine
216 Blue spruce
217 Aspen
218 Lodgepole pine
219 Limber pine
220 Rocky Mountain juniper
221 Red alder
222 Black cottonwood - willow
223 Sitka spruce
224 Western hemlock
225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
226 Coastal true fir - hemlock
227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
228 Western redcedar
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock
233 Oregon white oak
234 Douglas-fir - tanoak - Pacific madrone
235 Cottonwood - willow
236 Bur oak
237 Interior ponderosa pine
238 Western juniper
239 Pinyon - juniper
240 Arizona cypress
241 Western live oak
242 Mesquite
251 White spruce - aspen
252 Paper birch
253 Black spruce - white spruce
254 Black spruce - paper birch
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Whitetails are extremely adaptable animals, inhabiting a variety of
plant communities from tropical jungles to hot, dry deserts, to
subarctic climates [24]. They are found just about anywhere forested
areas are interspersed with open fields, fruit orchards, or agricultural
land. In the Northeast whitetails inhabit hardwood, conifer, and mixed
forests of pine (Pinus spp.), spruce (Picea spp.), fir (Abies spp.), or
maple (Acer spp.) and oak (Quercus spp.). In the Southeast they inhabit
the southern pine-oak forests interspersed with swamps and bottomland.
In the Northwest whitetails inhabit pine-spruce-fir and western
red-cedar (Thuja plicata)-western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) forests.
In the Southwest whitetails inhabit mesquite (Prosopis spp.)-oak
savannas and shrub/grassland communities. Whitetails also frequent
grasslands and agricultural lands of central North America
[3,6,7,12,17,18,23,26,39,41,45,47,48,51,54,56,57].
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
BIOLOGICAL DATA AND HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Odocoileus virginianus
TIMING OF MAJOR LIFE HISTORY EVENTS :
Mating Season - September through November, sometimes into January;
breeding dates vary with latitude, occurring in mid to
late winter in the South and earlier in the North
Gestation - about 6 to 7 months
Fawning Season - beginning in April and continuing through June,
depending on latitude; twinning occurs
Age of Maturity - females capable of reproducing at 6 to 7 months,
but usually do not breed until 1 1/2 years; yearling
males may not breed due to competition with older
bucks
Lifespan - can live up to 20 years, but 10 years is considered old
Antlers - males only; can be shed as early as mid-December;
sometimes not until March or April in young or unhealthy bucks
[21,24]
PREFERRED HABITAT :
Whitetails are most frequently found near streambottoms, draws, swamps,
and other riparian areas. They also frequent mixed deciduous and
coniferous forests at low to mid elevations with gentle slopes [50].
Elevations can range from sea level to 6,500 feet (1,981 m) [47].
Whitetails prefer to concentrate or "yard" in small to large groups in
regions where winter temperatures are cold and snow depth exceeds 18
inches (46 cm) [39]. "Yarding" usually occurs in dense, coniferous
stands near riparian areas having a southerly exposure. These same
areas are passed down from mother to daughter and used year after year
[24]. Whitetails begin to "yard" in midwinter and remain together
through April or May, depending on the depth and duration of snow. Deer
will use open areas in the winter but usually remain within a quarter
mile (0.4 km) of coniferous cover [21]. Whitetails are very adaptable
to disturbances, such as agriculture and forestry practices, and prefer
these areas if adequate forage and cover is available [24]. In the
southwestern United States whitetails tend to choose the pine-oak
montane forests at higher elevations [2].
COVER REQUIREMENTS :
At northern latitudes whitetails need stands of mixed conifer and
deciduous trees with partial openings that provide both forage and
protection from cold winds and deep snows. Forests that intercept about
50 percent of the snowfall and contain openings of 1 to 5 acres (0.4-2
ha) comprising 2 percent of the whitetail's forested range are most
beneficial [21,39]. In the Northeast, Hout and others [26] listed
conifer species in order of decreasing benefit for winter cover:
eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), white spruce (Picea glauca), red
spruce (Picea rubens), and balsam fir (Abies balsamea). Whitetails rely
on subclimax stands to provide hiding cover and adequate forage. At
southern latitudes whitetails do not usually migrate and use cover more
for hiding than for protection against severe weather [22].
FOOD HABITS :
Whitetails are primarily browsers and eat a tremendous variety of plants
throughout their range. Forage consumed is regionally specific and
usually consists of leaves, twigs, and stems of woody plants, as well as
mast, fruits, cultivated crops, and sometimes grasses and forbs. They
have also been observed eating marine kelp [24], and eating scavenged
salmon in Glacier National Park [personal observation]. In the North
evergreens become important browse during winter. Browse consumption is
highest when acorn mast is scarce and lowest when acorn mast is abundant
[21]. When whitetails can afford to be selective they tend to choose
the most nutritious plants [24]. Some of the most commonly browsed
plants are listed below: maple, oak, spruce, pine, fir, northern
white-cedar (Thuja occidentalis), hazel (Corylus spp.), dogwood (Cornus
spp.), sumac (Rhus spp.), honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.), birch (Betula
spp.), poplar (Populus spp.), aspen (P. tremuloides), willow (Salix
spp.), cherry (Prunus spp.), juniper (Juniperus spp.), apple (Malus
spp.), persimmon (Diospyros spp.), hawthorne (Crataegus spp.), common
snowberry (Symphorocarpus albus), greenbrier (Smilax spp.), buffaloberry
(Shepherdia spp.), bearberry (Arctostaphylus uva-ursi), current (Ribes
spp.), rose (Rosa spp.), rhododendron (Rhododendron spp.), mahonia
(Mahonia spp.), yaupon (Ilex spp.), low panicum grasses (Panicum spp.),
broomweed (Gutierrezia spp.), saltbush (Atriplex spp.), various species
of cactus, ceanothus (Ceanothus spp.), and viburnum (Viburnum spp.).
Whitetails will also eat fleshy berries of cherry, raspberry (Rubus
spp.), elder (Sambucus spp.), and huckleberry and blueberry (Vaccinium
spp.) Whitetails also eat cultivated crops, most notably corn, alfalfa,
and wheat, and vegetables and flowers in gardens [6,7,12,17,18,21,23,24,
26,39,41,43,45,47,48,51,54,56,57].
PREDATORS :
Whitetail predators include humans, coyotes (Canis latrans), domestic
dogs (Canis familiaris), wolves (Canis lupus), black bears (Ursus
americanus), grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), mountains lions (Felis
concolor), lynx (Felis lynx), and bobcats (Felis rufus). Predators
having less of an impact on whitetail populations include foxes (Vulpes
spp.), fishers (Martes pennanti), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and
bald eagles (Haliaetus leucocephalus) [40].
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Lyon and Jensen [37] reported on numerous studies of the effects of
clearcutting on deer and concluded that effects are unpredictable
because they are highly variable in all locations and habitats. In
general they determined that slash over 1.5 feet (0.5 m) deep would
hinder deer movement. Whitetails' responses to openings are a function
of forage, cover, size, type (natural or cut), and the behavior of a
specific population in any one area. Halls [21] reported that cutting
units should vary in shape and size but should not be more than 200
yards (181 m) wide. Also, cutting should promote a mix of various age
classes. Openings should be maintained by heavy thinning at an early
stand age to encourage forage production. In the Swan River Valley,
Montana, Freedman and Habeck [15] concluded that 20 to 40 years is
needed for recovery before a logged site can become significant winter
deer range. This is because deep winter snows make browse unavailable
until sufficient snow-intercepting canopy is established. However,
preferred browse species will usually become available in clearcut areas
only if they were a part of the predisturbance vegetative community
[59].
Domestic and feral dogs cause severe mortality in whitetail populations.
Fawns and pregnant does are the most vulnerable to dog attacks,
especially during the winter when snow is deep or crusty [21,24,40].
Tens of thousands of whitetails are killed annually by vehicles. Deer
are also vulnerable to viral, bacterial, and fungal diseases, as well as
parasites [21,24,38]. Whitetails are host to a parasitic meningeal worm
(Parelaphostrongylus tenuis), which is harmful to other cervids but not
to whitetails [2].
Whitetails inflict serious damage on commercial and private crops, as
well as on tree seedlings planted for regeneration projects. Deer can
entirely destroy or inhibit the regeneration of some tree species
through overbrowsing [21,24,38,52].
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE EFFECTS AND USE
WILDLIFE SPECIES: Odocoileus virginianus
DIRECT FIRE EFFECTS ON ANIMALS :
Fast-moving fires can confuse, trap, and kill deer [4,8].
HABITAT RELATED FIRE EFFECTS :
The effects of fire on whitetail habitat have been well documented.
Much of the literature reports in detail on the foraging behavior of
whitetails following fire. In general, whitetails are seen foraging
more frequently on burned sites than adjacent unburned sites
[20,29,30,36]. Patchy burns that create a mosaic of browse and cover
are usually beneficial to whitetail populations [11,14,29,31,42,46].
Historically, logging followed by fire played a major role in the
westward expansion of the whitetail's range [9]. In many areas fire
suppression has led to a decrease in forage quality and subsequently
quantity as early seral communities are replaced with unpalatable browse
or browse that grows out of reach of deer [14,15,19]. Many studies have
reported an increase in plant nutrients following fire, most notably
potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and potash. Crude fiber and protein
also tend to increase, as well as water and fat content
[11,20,21,32,35,36,44,49,53]. These nutrient increases tend to be
temporary, only lasting a few years before returning to preburn levels.
Lay [35,36] conducted several burning studies in the southern pine
forests of the United States. He reported that in the South, browse
comprises less than half of whitetail diets; therefore, when burning,
careful consideration must be given to the fire effects on fruits and
mast, which are important whitetail food. Thill and others [53]
reported that in the southern Coastal Plain, forage quality is a
limiting factor for whitetail populations, due to the heavily leached
acid soils. Burning temporarily improves forage quality but reduces
foraging efficiency and the availability of fruits within the 1st year
after burning.
A study in northern Idaho showed that during January, March, and April,
whitetails chose to forage in unburned Douglas fir/ninebark (Pseudotsuga
menziesii/Physocarpus malvaceous) habitat types where the average
distance to cover was 4.5 feet (1.5 m) [29]. Ninebark is relatively
unpalatable to whitetails and is eaten more frequently on burned sites.
Burning these types may reduce their value to whitetails until cover
similar to that of the unburned sites is regenerated (3-4 years).
Redstem ceanothus (Ceanothus sanguineus), a highly valued deer forage,
increased dramatically after both spring and fall burning, with greater
increases after fall burning [46]. Burning jack pine (Pinus banksiana)
plantations in Nebraska resulted in a decrease of whitetails in the
burned areas due to a reduction in cover [58].
FIRE USE :
Prescribed fire is a commonly used tool for whitetail habitat
improvement [9]. It can be used to maintain or prevent the development
of certain vegetation types and create a diversity of age classes to
provide forage and cover [52]. Prescribed fire can also be used to
reduce slash, which impedes deer movement, and to reduce duff in areas
where quick duff accumulation can prevent growth of understory forage
species [10]. Halls [21] recommended burning in late winter or early
spring to promote resprouting of vegetation in spring and summer.
Summer fires can reduce availability of forage important in fall and
winter. He also stated that fires in southern pine forests should be
excluded until trees are 15 feet (4.6 m) tall and then burned at 3- to
5-year intervals to keep browse within reach. Burning units should be
kept to 74 acres (30 ha) or less [28]. Lay [35] also suggested spring
burning in southern pine forests but stated that long-term results of
repeated burning are detrimental to forage species. DeByle [10]
recommended burning aspen stands at 40- to 80-year intervals for optimum
deer habitat. Units should be 10 to 40 acres (4-16 ha) to prevent
overbrowsing and should be maintained in varying age classes.
Armstrong [1] recommended burning every 7 to 10 years in the Edwards
Plateau Region of Texas. He stated that reducing the whitetail
population by as much as 50 percent before burning would prevent
overbrowsing in postburn areas and would not be detrimental to the deer
population. Merrill [42] suggested burning grand fir (Abies grandis)/
pachistima (Pachistima myrsinites) types during spring or fall every 10
years to rejuvenate decadent plants [42].
The Minnesota Department of Conservation listed five burning practices
for improving whitetail habitat in northern hardwood forests [9]:
(1) Burn slash to remove it as an obstacle and prepare the seedbed.
(2) Burn decadent aspen to provide browse for about 5 years.
(3) Burn 10 to 20 acre (4-8 ha) patches adjacent to deer yards during
dormant season to encourage shrub and hardwood tree sprouts.
(4) Reburn small areas to maintain openings in forests.
(5) Identify areas where wildfires could be left to burn.
REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
References for species: Odocoileus virginianus
1. Armstrong, W. E. 1980. Impact of prescribed burning on wildlife. In: White, Larry D., ed. Prescribed range burning in the Edwards Plateau of Texas: Proceedings of a symposium; 1980 October 23; Junction, TX. College Station, TX: Texas Agricultural Extension Service, The Texas A&M University System: 22-26. [11430]
2. Baker, Rollin A. 1984. Origin, classification, and distribution. In: Halls, Lowell K., ed. White-tailed deer: ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 1-18. [14289]
3. Barber, Harold L. 1984. Eastern mixed forest. In: Halls, Lowell K., ed. White-tailed deer: ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 345-354. [14293]
4. Bendell, J. F. 1974. Effects of fire on birds and mammals. In: Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E., eds. Fire and ecosystems. New York: Academic Press: 73-138. [16447]
5. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]
6. Blouch, Ralph I. 1984. Northern Great Lakes States and Ontario forests. In: Halls, Lowell K., ed. White-tailed deer: ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 391-410. [14297]
7. Cook, Robert L. 1984. Texas. In: Halls, Lowell K., ed. White-tailed deer: ecology and management. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books: 457-474. [14302]
8. Cowan, Ian McTaggert. 1956. The black-tailed deer. In: Taylor, Walter P., ed. The deer of North America. Harrisburg, PA: The Telegraph Press: 521-617. [14313]
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